Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Impacts of atmosphere–sea ice–ocean interaction on Southern Ocean deep convection in a climate system model

Climate Dynamics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Cite this article

Abstract

Deep convection in polar oceans plays a critical role in the variability of global climate. In this study, we investigate potential impacts of atmosphere–sea ice–ocean interaction on deep convection in the Southern Ocean (SO) of a climate system model (CSM) by changing sea ice–ocean stress. Sea ice–ocean stress plays a vital role in the horizontal momentum exchange between sea ice and the ocean, and can be parameterized as a function of the turning angle between sea ice and ocean velocity. Observations have shown that the turning angle is closely linked to the sea-ice intrinsic properties, including speed and roughness, and it varies spatially. However, a fixed turning angle, i.e., zero turning angle, is prescribed in most of the state-of-the-art CSMs. Thus, sensitivities of SO deep convection to zero and non-zero turning angles are discussed in this study. We show that the use of a non-zero turning angle weakens open–ocean deep convection and intensifies continental shelf slope convection. Our analyses reveal that a non-zero turning angle first induces offshore movement of sea ice transporting to the open SO, which leads to sea ice decrease in the SO coastal region and increase in the open SO. In the SO coastal region, the enhanced sea-ice divergence intensifies the formation of denser surface water descending along continental shelf by enhanced salt flux and reduced freshwater flux, combined with enhanced Ekman pumping and weakened stratification, contributing to the occurrence and intensification of continental shelf slope convection. On the other hand, the increased sea ice in the open SO weakens the westerlies, enhances sea-level pressure, and increases freshwater flux, whilst oceanic cyclonic circulation slows down, sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity decrease in the open SO response to the atmospheric changes. Thus, weakened cyclonic circulation, along with enhanced freshwater flux, reduced deep–ocean heat content, and increased stability of sea water, dampens the open–ocean deep convection in the SO, which in turn cools the sea surface temperature, increases sea-level pressure, and finally increases sea-ice concentration, providing a positive feedback. In the CSM, the use of a non-zero turning angle has the capability to reduce the SO warm bias. These results highlight the importance of an accurate representation of sea ice–ocean coupling processes in a CSM.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15

References

  • Akitomo K (1999a) Open–ocean deep convection due to thermobaricity 1. Scaling argument. J Geophys Res 104:5225–5234

    Google Scholar 

  • Akitomo K (1999b) Open–ocean deep convection due to thermobaricity 2. Numerical experiments. J Geophys Res 104:5235–5249

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson RF, Ali S, Bradtmiller LI, Nielsen SHH et al (2009) Wind-driven upwelling in the Southern Ocean and the Deglacial Rise in atmospheric CO2. Science 323:1443–1448

    Google Scholar 

  • Balmaseda MA, Mogensen K, Weaver AT (2013) Evaluation of the ECMWF ocean reanalysis system ORAS4. QJR Meteorol Soc 139:1132–1161

    Google Scholar 

  • Behrens E, Rickard G, Morgenstern O, Martin T, Osprey A, Joshi M (2016) Southern Ocean deep convection in global climate models: a driver for variability of subpolar gyres and Drake Passage transport on decadal timescales. J Geophys Res Oceans 121:3905–3925

    Google Scholar 

  • Born A, Nisancioglu KH, Braconnot P (2010) Sea ice induced changes in ocean circulation during the Eemian. Climate Dyn 35:1361–1371

    Google Scholar 

  • Cao J, Wang B, Yang YM, Ma LB et al (2018) The NUIST Earth System Model (NESM) version 3: description and preliminary evaluation. Geosci Model Dev 11:2975–2993

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappelletti A, Picco P, Peluso T (2010) Upper ocean layer dynamics and response to atmospheric forcing in the Terra Nova Bay polynya. Antarctica. Antarct Sci 22(3):319–329

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheon WG, Park YG, Toggweiler JR, Lee SK (2014) The relationship of Weddell Polynya and open–ocean deep convection to the Southern Hemisphere westerlies. J Phys Oceanogr 44:694–713

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheon WG, Lee S-K, Gordon AL et al (2015) Replicating the 1970’s Weddell Polynya using a coupled ocean-sea ice model with reanalysis surface flux fields. Geophys Res Lett 42:5411–5418

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheon WG, Cho C-B, Gordon AL et al (2018) The role of oscillating Southern Hemisphere westerly winds: Southern Ocean coastal and open–ocean polynyas. J Climate 31:1053–1073

    Google Scholar 

  • Chu PC (2015) Ekman spiral in a horizontally inhomogeneous ocean with varying eddy viscosity. Pure Appl Geophys 172:2831–2857

    Google Scholar 

  • Danabasoglu G (2008) On multidecadal variability of the Atlantic Meridional overturning circulation in the Community Climate system model version 3. J Climate 21:5524–5544

    Google Scholar 

  • Defant A (1961) Physical oceanography, vol 1. Pergamon Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • de Lavergne C, Palter JB, Galbraith ED, Bernardello R, Marinov I (2014) Cessation of deep convection in the open Southern Ocean under anthropogenic climate change. Nat Climate Change 4:278–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Delworth T, Manabe S, Stouffer RJ (1993) Interdecadal variations of the thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. J Climate 6:1993–2011

    Google Scholar 

  • Dong B, Sutton R (2001) The dominant mechanisms of variability in Atlantic Ocean heat transport in a coupled ocean-atmospheric GCM. Geophys Res Lett 28:2445–2448

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahrbach E, Rohardt G, Scheele N, Schröder M, Strass V, Wisotzki A (1995) Formation and discharge of deep and bottom water in the northwestern Weddell Sea. J Mar Res 53:515–538

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari R et al (2014) Antarctic sea ice control on ocean circulation in present and glacial climates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:8753–8758

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankignoul C, Deshayes J, Curry R (2009) The role of salinity in the decadal variability of the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation. Climate Dyn 33:777–793

    Google Scholar 

  • Frölicher TL et al (2015) Dominance of the Southern Ocean in anthropogenic carbon and heat uptake in CMIP5 models. J Climate 28:862–886

    Google Scholar 

  • Galbraith ED et al (2011) Climate variability and radiocarbon in the CM2MC Earth System Model. J Climate 24:4230–4254

    Google Scholar 

  • Ge X, Wang W, Kumar A, Zhang Y (2017) Importance of the vertical resolution in simulating SST diurnal and intraseasonal variability in an oceanic general circulation model. J Clim 30(11):3963–3978

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon AL (1978) Deep Antarctic convection west of Maud Rise. J Phys Oceanogr 8:600–612

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon AL (1982) Weddell deep water variability. J Mar Res 40:199–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon AL, Comiso JC (1987) Polynyas in the southern ocean. Sci Am 256:90–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon AL, Huber BA (1990) Southern Ocean winter mixed layer. J Geophys Res 95:11655–11672

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon AL, Visbeck M, Comiso JC (2007) A possible link between the Weddell polynya and the Southern Annular Mode. J Climate 20:2558–2571

    Google Scholar 

  • Haumann FA, Gruber N, Münnich M, Frenger I, Kern S (2016) Sea-ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends. Nature 537:89–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Heuzé C, Heywood KJ, Stevens DP, Ridley JK (2013) Southern Ocean bottom water characteristics in CMIP5 models. Geophys Res Lett 40:1409–1414

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirabara M, Tsujino H, Nakano H, Yamanaka G (2012) Formation mechanism of the Weddell Sea Polynya and the impact on the global abyssal ocean. J Oceanogr 68:771–796

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland DM (2001) Explaining the Weddell Polynya—a large ocean eddy shed at Maud Rise. Science 292:1697–1700

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunke EC (2010) Thickness sensitivities in the CICE sea ice model. Ocean Model 34:137–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunke EC, Lipscomb WH (2010) CICE: the Los Alamos Sea Ice Model documentation and software user’s manual version 4.1. LA-CC-06-012, p 76

  • Hunkins K (1966) Ekman drift currents in the Arctic Ocean. Deep Sea Res 13:607–620

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurrell JW, Holland MM, Gent PR et al (2013) The community earth system model: a framework for collaborative research. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 9:1339–1360

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyder P, Edwards JM et al (2018) Critical Sothern Ocean climate model biases traced to atmospheric model cloud errors. Nat Commun 9:3625. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-056634-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson L, Vellinga M (2012) Multidecadal to centennial variability of the AMOC: HadCM3 and a perturbed physics ensemble. J Climate 26:2390–2407

    Google Scholar 

  • Killworth PD (1983) Deep convection in the world ocean. Rev Geophys Space Phys 21:1–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Madec G (2012) NEMO ocean engine. ISSN No 1288-1619, p 366

  • Marshall J, Schott F (1999) Open–ocean deep convection: Observations, theory, and models. Rev Geophys 37:1–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall J, Speer K (2012) Closure of the meridional overturing circulation through Southern Ocean upwelling. Nat Geosci 5:171–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin T, Park WS, Latif M (2013) Multi-centennial variability controlled by Southern Ocean convection in the Kiel Climate Model. Climate Dyn 40:2005–2022

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinson DG (1991) Deep convection and deep water formation in the oceans. In: Chu PC, Gascard JC (eds) Elsevier oceanography series, pp 37–52

  • Martinson DG, Killworth PD, Gordon AL (1981) A convective model for the Weddell Polynya. J Phys Oceanogr 11:466–488

    Google Scholar 

  • McPhee MG (1980) An analysis of pack ice drift in summer. In: Pritchard R (ed) Sea ice processes and models. University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp 62–75

  • McPhee MG (2012) Advances in understanding ice-ocean stress during and since AIDJEX. Cold Region Sci Technol 76–77:24–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Morales Maqueda MA, Willmott AJ, Biggs NRT (2004) Polynya dynamics: a review of observations and modeling. Rev Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002RG000116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgenstern O, Zeng G, Dean SM, Hoshi M, Abraham NL, Osprey A (2014) Direct and ozone-mediated forcing in the Southern annual mode by greenhouse gas. Geophys Res Lett 41:9050–9057

    Google Scholar 

  • Msadek R, Frankignoul C (2009) Atlantic multidecadal oceanic variability and its influence on the atmosphere in a climate model. Climate Dyn 33:45–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima KI, Nakanowatari T, Riser S, Volkov Y, Wakatsuchi M (2014) Freshening and dense shelf water reduction in the Okhotsk Sea linked with sea ice decline. Prog Oceanogr 126:71–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Orsi AH, Johnson GC, Bullister JL (1999) Circulation, mixing, and production of Antarctic Bottom Water. Prog Oceanogr 43:55–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Park W, Latif M (2008) Multidecadal and multicentennial variability of the meridional overturning circulation. Geophys Res Lett 35:L22703. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park W, Keenlyside N, Latif M et al (2009) Tropical pacific climate and its response to global warming in the Kiel Climate Model. J Climate 22:71–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Raddatz TJ, Reick CH, Kattge J et al (2007) Will the tropical land biosphere dominate the climate-carbon cycle feedback during the twenty-first century? Climate Dyn 29:565–574

    Google Scholar 

  • Reintges A, Martin T, Latif M, Park W (2017) Physical controls of Southern Ocean deep-convection variability in CMIP5 models and the Kiel Climate Model. Geophys Res Lett 44:6951–6958

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts CD, Garry FK, Jackson LC (2013) A multimodel study of sea surface temperature and subsurface density fingerprints of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. J Climate 26:9155–9174

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson R, Visbeck M, Gordon AL, Fahrbach E (2002) Longterm temperature trends in the deep waters of the Weddell Sea. Deep Sea Res II 49:4791–4806

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusciano E, Budillon G, Fusco G, Spezie G (2013) Evidence of atmosphere–sea ice–ocean coupling in the Terra Nova Bay polynya (Ross Sea—Antarctica). Cont Shelf Res 61–62:112–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Saenko OA, Schmittner A, Weaver AJ (2002) On the role of wind-driven sea ice motion on ocean ventilation. J Phys Oceanogr 32:3376–3395

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider DP, Reusch DB (2016) Antarctic and southern ocean surface temperatures in CMIP5 models in the context of the surface energy budget. J Climate 29:1689–1716

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigman DM, Hain MP, Haug GH (2010) The polar ocean and glacial cycles in atmospheric CO2 concentration. Nature 466:47–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith S, Muench RD, Pease CH (1990) Polynyas and leads: an overview of physical processes and environment. J Geophys Res 95:9461–9479

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens B et al (2013) The atmospheric component of the MPI-M Earth System Model: ECHAM6. J Adv Model Earth Syst 5:146–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsamados M, Feltham DL, Schroeder D, Flocco D (2014) Impact of variable atmospheric and oceanic form drag on simulations of Arctic sea ice. J Phys Oceanogr 44:1329–1353

    Google Scholar 

  • Uotila P, O’Farrell S, Marsland SJ, Bi D (2012) A sea-ice sensitivity study with a global ocean-ice model. Ocean Model 51:1–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Valcke S, Coquart L (2015) OASIS-MCT user guide: OASIS-MCT 3.0. CERFACS TR/CMGC/15/38, p 58

  • Wang CZ, Zhang LP, Lee S-K, Wu LX, Mechoso CR (2014) A global perspective on CMIP5 climate model biases. Nat Climate Change 4:201–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang ZM, Wu Y, Lin X, Liu CY, Xie ZL (2017) Impacts of open–ocean deep convection in the Weddell Sea on coastal and bottom water temperature. Climate Dyn 48:2967–2981

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams WJ, Carmarck EC, and Ingram RG (2007) Physical oceanography of polynyas. In: Smith W and Barber D (eds) Chap 2: Polynyas: windows to the world. Elsevier oceanography series, vol 74. Elsevier, pp 55–85

  • Zika JD, Sommer JL, Dufour CO, Naveira-Garabato A, Blaker A (2013) Acceleration of the Antarctic circumpolar current by wind stress along the coast of Antarctica. J Phys Oceanogr 43:2772–2784

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study is supported by the grant 2018YFA0605904 from the National Major Research High Resolution Sea Ice Model Development Program of China. This study is also sponsored by the Basic Research Fund of CAMS (2018Z007) and the Startup Foundation for Introducing Talent of NUIST (No. 2018r064). This is the IPRC publication number 1435 and ESMC publication number 303.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China

    Libin Ma

  2. Key Laboratory of Meteorological Disaster of Ministry of Education (KLME)/Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC)/Collaborative Innovation Center On Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters (CIC-FEMD), Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Ningliu Road 219, Meteorology Bldg, Nanjing, 210044, Jiangsu, China

    Libin Ma & Jian Cao

  3. Department of Atmospheric Sciences and International Pacific Research Center, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1860 East-West Road, POST Bldg. 401, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA

    Bin Wang

Authors
  1. Libin Ma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bin Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jian Cao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Libin Ma or Bin Wang.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 3567 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ma, L., Wang, B. & Cao, J. Impacts of atmosphere–sea ice–ocean interaction on Southern Ocean deep convection in a climate system model. Clim Dyn 54, 4075–4093 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-020-05218-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-020-05218-1

Keywords

search

Navigation