Abstract
Analyzing December–February (DJF) precipitation in the southern tropical Andes—STA (\(12^{\circ }\,\hbox {S}\)–\(20^{\circ }\,\hbox {S}\); > 3000 m.a.s.l) allows revisiting regional atmospheric circulation features accounting for its interannual variability over the past 35 years (1982–2018). In a region where in-situ rainfall stations are sparse, the CHIRPS precipitation product is used to identify the first mode of interannual DJF precipitation variability (PC1-Andes). A network of 98 rain-gauge stations further allows verifying that PC1-Andes properly represents the spatio-temporal rainfall distribution over the region; in particular a significant increase in DJF precipitation over the period of study is evident in both in-situ data and PC1-Andes. Using the ERA-Interim data set, we found that aside from the well-known relationship between precipitation and upper-level easterlies over the STA, PC1-Andes is also associated with upward motion over the western Amazon (WA), a link that has not been reported before. The ascent over the WA is a component of the meridional circulation between the tropical North Atlantic and western tropical South America—WTSA (\(80^{\circ }\,\hbox {W}\)–\(60^{\circ }\,\hbox {W}\); \(35^{\circ }\,\hbox {S}\)–\(10^{\circ }\,\hbox {N}\)). Indeed, the precipitation increase over the last 2 decades is concomitant with the strengthening of this meridional circulation. An intensified upward motion over the WA has moistened the mid-troposphere over WTSA, and as a consequence, a decreased atmospheric stability between the mid- and the upper troposphere is observed over this region, including the STA. We further show that, over the last 15 years or so, the year-to-year variability of STA precipitation (periodicity < 8 years) has been significantly associated with upward motion over the WA, while upper-level easterlies are no longer significantly correlated with precipitation. These observations suggests that the STA have experienced a transition from a dry to a wet state in association with a change in the dominant mode of atmospheric circulation. In the former dominant state, zonal advection of momentum and moisture from the central Amazon, associated with upper-level easterlies, is necessary to develop convection over the STA. Since the beginning of the 21st century, DJF precipitation over the STA seems to respond directly and primarily to upward motion over the WA. Beyond improving our understanding of the factors influencing STA precipitation nowadays, these results point to the need of exploring their possible implications for the long-term evolution of precipitation in a context of global warming.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aceituno P, Garreaud R (1995) Impacto de los fenónemos el Niño y la Niña en regímenes fluviométricos andinos. Rev Soc Chil Hidrául 10(2):33–43
Adler RF, Huffman GJ, Chang A, Ferraro R, Xie PP, Janowiak J, Rudolf B, Schneider U, Curtis S, Bolvin D, Gruber A, Susskind J, Arkin P, Nelkin E (2003) The version-2 global precipitation climatology project (GPCP) monthly precipitation analysis (1979–Present). J Hydrometeorol 4(6):1147–1167
Adler RF, Sapiano MR, Huffman GJ, Wang JJ, Gu G, Bolvin D, Chiu L, Schneider U, Becker A, Nelkin E, Xie P, Ferraro R, Shin DB (2018) The Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) monthly analysis (New Version 2.3) and a review of (2017) global precipitation. Atmosphere (Basel) 9:4. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9040138
Allan RP, Soden BJ, John VO, Ingram W, Good P (2010) Current changes in tropical precipitation. Environ Res Lett 5:2. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/5/2/025205
Arias PA, Martínez JA, Vieira SC (2015) Moisture sources to the 2010–2012 anomalous wet season in northern South America. Clim Dyn 45(9–10):2861–2884. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2511-7
Barichivich J, Gloor E, Peylin P, Brienen RJW, Schöngart J, Espinoza JC, Pattnayak KC (2018) Recent intensification of Amazon flooding extremes driven by strengthened Walker circulation. Sci Adv 4(9):8785. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat8785
Bendix J, Lauer W (1992) Die Niederschlagsjahreszeiten in Ecuador und ihre klimadynamische Interpretation (Rainy Seasons in Ecuador and Their Climate-Dynamic Interpretation). Erdkunde 2(1992):118—134. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25646379
Berntell E, Zhang Q, Chafik L, Körnich H (2018) Representation of multidecadal Sahel rainfall variability in 20th century reanalyses. Sci Rep 8(1):6–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-29217-9
Berrisford P, Kållberg P, Kobayashi S, Dee D, Uppala S, Simmons AJ, Poli P, Sato H (2011) Atmospheric conservation properties in ERA-Interim. Q J R Meteorol Soc 137(659):1381–1399. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.864
Bordoni S, Schneider T (2008) Monsoons as eddy-mediated regime transitions of the tropical overturning circulation. Nat Geosci 1(8):515–519. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo248
Chávez RO, Christie DA, Olea M, Anderson TG (2019) A multiscale productivity assessment of high Andean Peatlands across the Chilean Altiplano using 31 years of landsat imagery. Remote Sens 11(24):2955. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11242955
Debortoli SN, Dubreuil V, Funatsu B, Delahaye F, de Oliveira CH, Rodrigues-Filho S, Saito CH, Fetter R (2015) Rainfall patterns in the Southern Amazon: a chronological perspective (1971–S2010). Clim Change 132(2):251–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1415-1
Dee DP, Uppala SM, Simmons AJ, Berrisford P, Poli P, Kobayashi S, Andrae U, Balmaseda MA, Balsamo G, Bauer P, Bechtold P, Beljaars AC, van de Berg L, Bidlot J, Bormann N, Delsol C, Dragani R, Fuentes M, Geer AJ, Haimberger L, Healy SB, Hersbach H, Hólm EV, Isaksen L, Kållberg P, Köhler M, Matricardi M, Mcnally AP, Monge-Sanz BM, Morcrette JJ, Park BK, Peubey C, de Rosnay P, Tavolato C, Thépaut JN, Vitart F (2011) The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Q J R Meteorol Soc 137(656):553–597. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828
DeMaria M (1985) Linear response of a stratified tropical atmosphere to convective forcing. J Atmos Sci 42(18):1944–1959. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042%3c1944:LROAST%3e2.0.CO;2
Espinoza JC, Ronchail J, Frappart F, Lavado W, Santini W, Guyot JL (2013) The major floods in the Amazonas River and Tributaries (Western Amazon Basin) during the 1970–2012 Period: a focus on the 2012 flood*. J Hydrometeorol 14(3):1000–1008. https://doi.org/10.1175/jhm-d-12-0100.1
Espinoza JC, Chavez S, Ronchail J, Junquas C, Takahashi K, Lavado W (2015) Rainfall hotspots over the southern tropical Andes: spatial distribution, rainfall intensity, and relations with large-scale atmospheric circulation. Water Resour Res 51(5):3459–3475. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016273
Espinoza JC, Segura H, Ronchail J, Drapeau G, Gutierrez-Cori O (2016) Evolution of wet-day and dry-day frequency in the western Amazon basin: relationship with atmospheric circulation and impacts on vegetation. Water Resour Res 52(11):8546–8560. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016WR019305
Espinoza JC, Ronchail J, Marengo J, Segura H (2019a) Contrasting North–South changes in Amazon wet-day and dry-day frequency and related atmospheric features (1981–2017). Clim Dyn. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4462-2
Espinoza JC, Sorensson AA, Ronchail J, Molina J, Segura H, Gutierrezi O, Ruscica R, Condom T, Wongchuig S (2019b) Regional hydro-climatic changes in the Southern Amazon Basin ( Upper Madeira Basin ) during the 1982–2017 period. J Hydrol Reg Stud 26(September):100637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100637
Falvey M, Garreaud RD (2005) Moisture variability over the South American Altiplano during the South American low level jet experiment (SALLJEX) observing season. J Geophys Res Atmos 110(22):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006152
Figueroa SN, Satyamurty P, Da Silva Dias PL (1995) Simulations of the summer circulation over the South American Region with an eta coordinate model. J Atmos Sci 52(10):1573–1584. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1995)052%3c1573:SOTSCO%3e2.0.CO;2
Fu R, Zhu B, Dickinson RE (1999) How do atmosphere and land surface influence seasonal changes of convection in the tropical Amazon? J Clim 12(5I):1306–1321. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012%3c1306:HDAALS%3e2.0.CO;2
Fu R, Yin L, Li W, Arias PA, Dickinson RE, Huang L, Chakraborty S, Fernandes K, Liebmann B, Fisher R, Myneni RB (2013) Increased dry-season length over southern Amazonia in recent decades and its implication for future climate projection. Proc Natl Acad Sci 110(45):18110–18115. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1302584110
Funk C, Peterson P, Landsfeld M, Pedreros D, Verdin J, Shukla S, Husak G, Rowland J, Harrison L, Hoell A, Michaelsen J (2015) The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations-a new environmental record for monitoring extremes. Sci Data 2:150066. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2015.66. http://www.nature.com/articles/sdata201566. http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.1669v3
Gandu AW, Silva Dias PL (1998) Impact of tropical heat sources on the South American tropospheric upper circulation and subsidence. J Geophys Res Atmos 103(D6):6001–6015. https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD03114
Garreaud R, Vuille M, Clement AC (2003) The climate of the Altiplano: observed current conditions and mechanisms of past changes. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 194(1–3):5–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00269-4
Garreaud RD (1999) Multiscale analysis of the summertime precipitation over the Central Andes. Mon Weather Rev 127:901–921. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127%3c0901:MAOTSP%3e2.0.CO;2
Garreaud RD (2000) Intraseasonal variability of moisture and rainfall over the South American Altiplano. Mon Weather Rev 128(9):3337–3346. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128%3c3337:IVOMAR%3e2.0.CO;2
Garreaud RD (2009) The Andes climate and weather. Adv Geosci 22:3–11. https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-22-3-2009
Garreaud RD, Aceituno P (2001) Interannual Rainfall Variability over the South American Altiplano. J Clim 14(1987):2779–2789. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014%3c2779:IRVOTS%3e2.0.CO;2
Gill AE (1980) Some simple solutions for heat-induced tropical circulation. Q J R Meteorol Soc 106(449):447–462. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710644905
Gouirand I, Jury MR, Sing B (2012) An analysis of low- and high-frequency summer climate variability around the Caribbean antilles. J Clim 25(11):3942–3952. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00269.1
Gu G, Adler RF (2018) Precipitation intensity changes in the tropics from observations and models. J Clim 31(12):4775–4790. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0550.1
Houston J, Hartley AJ (2003) The central Andean west-slope rainshadow and its potential contribution to the origin of hyper-aridity in the Atacama Desert. Int J Climatol 23(12):1453–1464. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.938
Hsu PC, Li T, Wang B (2011) Trends in global monsoon area and precipitation over the past 30 years. Geophys Res Lett 38(8):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL046893
Hsu PC, Li T, Luo JJ, Murakami H, Kitoh A, Zhao M (2012) Increase of global monsoon area and precipitation under global warming: a robust signal? Geophys Res Lett 39(6):2–7. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051037
Hunziker S, Gubler S, Calle J, Moreno I, Andrade M, Velarde F, Ticona L, Carrasco G, Carrasco GY, Oria C, Croci-Maspoli M, Konzelmann T, Rohrer M, Brönnimann S (2017) Identifying, attributing, and overcoming common data quality issues of manned station observations. Int J Climatol 37(11):4131–4145. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5037
Hurley JV, Vuille M, Hardy DR, Burns SJ, Thompson LG (2015) Cold air incursions, δ18O variability, and monsoon dynamics associated with snow days at Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru. J Geophys Res Atmos 120(15):7467–7487. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023323
Junquas C, Takahashi K, Condom T, Espinoza JC, Chavez S, Sicart JE, Lebel T (2018) Understanding the influence of orography on the precipitation diurnal cycle and the associated atmospheric processes in the central Andes. Clim Dyn. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3858-8
Kao A, Jiang X, Li L, Su H, Yung Y (2017) Precipitation, circulation, and cloud variability over the past two decades. Earth Sp Sci 4(9):597–606. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017EA000319
Lagos P, Silva Y, Nickl E, Mosquera K (2008) El Nino related precipitation variability in Peru. Adv Geosci 3:231–237
Lenters JD, Cook KH (1997) On the origin of the Bolivian high and related circulation features of the South American climate. J Atmos Sci 54(5):656–678. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054%3c0656:OTOOTB%3e2.0.CO;2
Marengo JA, Tomasella J, Alves LM, Soares WR, Rodriguez DA (2011) The drought of 2010 in the context of historical droughts in the Amazon region. Geophys Res Lett 38(12):1–5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047436
Martinez JA, Dominguez F (2014) Sources of atmospheric moisture for the La Plata River Basin. J Clim 27(17):6737–6753. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00022.1
Melice JL, Roucou P (1998) Decadal time scale variability recorded in the Quelccaya summit ice core δ18O isotopic ratio series and its relation with the sea surface temperature. Clim Dyn 14(2):117–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820050213
Minvielle M, Garreaud RD (2011) Projecting rainfall changes over the South American Altiplano. J Clim 24(17):4577–4583. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00051.1
Morales MS, Christie DA, Villalba R, Argollo J, Pacajes J, Silva JS, Alvarez CA, Llancabure JC, Gamboa CC (2012) Precipitation changes in the South American Altiplano since 1300 AD reconstructed by tree-rings. Clim Past 8(2):653–666. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-653-2012
Neukom R, Rohrer M, Calanca P, Salzmann N, Huggel C, Acuña D, Christie DA, Morales MS (2015) Facing unprecedented drying of the Central Andes? Precipitation variability over the period AD 1000–2100. Environ Res Lett 10(8):84017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/8/084017
Nie J, Boos WR, Kuang Z (2010) Observational evaluation of a convective quasi-equilibrium view of monsoons. J Clim 23(16):4416–4428. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3505.1
Paccini L, Espinoza JC, Ronchail J, Segura H (2018) Intra-seasonal rainfall variability in the Amazon basin related to large-scale circulation patterns: a focus on western Amazon-Andes transition region. Int J Climatol 38(5):2386–2399. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5341
Panthou G, Lebel T, Vischel T, Quantin G, Sane Y, Ba A, Ndiaye O, Diongue-Niang A, Diopkane M (2018) Rainfall intensification in tropical semi-arid regions: the Sahelian case. Environ Res Lett 13:6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aac334
Perry LB, Seimon A, Kelly GM (2014) Precipitation delivery in the tropical high Andes of southern Peru: new findings and paleoclimatic implications. Int J Climatol 34(1):197–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3679
Roberts J, Roberts TD (1978) Use of the Butterworth low-pass filter for oceanographic data. J Geophys Res 83(C11):5510–5514. https://doi.org/10.1029/jc083ic11p05510
Rodwell MJ, Hoskins BJ (2001) Subtropical anticyclones and summer monsoons. J Clim 14(15):3192–3211. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014%3c3192:SAASM%3e2.0.CO;2
Sakaguchi K, Leung LR, Burleyson CD, Xiao H, Wan H (2018) Role of troposphere-convection-land coupling in the Southwestern Amazon precipitation bias of the community earth system model version 1 (CESM1). J Geophys Res Atmos 123(16):8374–8399. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028999
Sassi F, Salby M, Read WG (2001) Relationship between upper tropospheric humidity and deep convection. J Geophys Res 106(D15):17133. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD900121
Scala JR, Garstang M, Tao Wk, Pickering KE, Thompson AM, Simpson J, Kirchhoff VWJH, Browell EV, Sachse GW, Torres AL, Gregory GL, Rasmussen RA, Khalil MAK (2008) Cloud draft structure and trace gas transport. J Geophys Res 95(D10):17015. https://doi.org/10.1029/jd095id10p17015
Schiro KA, Neelin JD, Adams DK, Lintner BR (2016) Deep convection and column water vapor over tropical land versus tropical ocean: a comparison between the Amazon and the Tropical Western Pacific. J Atmos Sci 73(10):4043–4063. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-16-0119.1
Schneider T, Bordoni S (2008) Eddy-mediated regime transitions in the seasonal cycle of a Hadley circulation and implications for monsoon dynamics. J Atmos Sci 65(3):915–934. https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAS2415.1
Segura H, Espinoza JC, Junquas C, Takahashi K (2016) Evidencing decadal and interdecadal hydroclimatic variability over the Central Andes. Environ Res Lett 11(9):094016. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/9/094016
Segura H, Junquas C, Carlo J, Vuille M, Jauregui YR, Rabatel A, Condom T, Lebel T (2019) New insights into the rainfall variability in the tropical Andes on seasonal and interannual time scales. Clim Dyn. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4590-8
Sherwood SC, Roca R, Weckwerth TM, Andronova NG (2010) Tropospheric water vapor, convection, and climate. Rev Geophys 48(2):1–29. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009RG000301
Sicart JE, Espinoza JC, Quéno L, Medina M (2016) Radiative properties of clouds over a tropical Bolivian glacier: seasonal variations and relationship with regional atmospheric circulation. Int J Climatol 36(8):3116–3128. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4540
Silva Dias PL, Schubert WH, DeMaria M (1983) Large-scale response of the tropical atmosphere to transient convection. J Atmos Sci 40(11):2689–2707. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040%3c2689:LSROTT%3e2.0.CO;2
Sulca J, Takahashi K, Espinoza JC, Vuille M, Lavado-Casimiro W (2018) Impacts of different ENSO flavors and tropical Pacific convection variability (ITCZ, SPCZ) on austral summer rainfall in South America, with a focus on Peru. Int J Climatol 38(1):420–435. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5185
Vera C, Higgins W, Amador J, Ambrizzi T, Garreaud R, Gochis D, Gutzler D, Lettenmaier D, Marengo J, Mechoso CR, Nogues-Paegle J, Dias PLS, Zhang C (2006) Toward a unified view of the American monsoon systems. J Clim 19(20):4977–5000. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3896.1
Vera CS, Díaz LB, Saurral RI (2019) Influence of anthropogenically-forced global warming and natural climate variability in the rainfall changes observed over the South American Altiplano. Front Environ Sci 7(June):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00087
Virji H (1981) A Preliminary study of summertime tropospheric circulation patterns over South America estimated from cloud winds. Mon Weather Rev 109(3):599–610. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109%3c0599:APSOST%3e2.0.CO;2
Vizy EK, Cook KH (2007) Relationship between Amazon and high Andes rainfall. J Geophys Res Atmos 112(7):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007980
Vuille M (2003a) Modeling δ18O in precipitation over the tropical Americas: 1. Interannual variability and climatic controls. J Geophys Res 108(D6):4174. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001jd002038
Vuille M (2003b) Modeling δ18O in precipitation over the tropical Americas: 2. Simulation of the stable isotope signal in Andean ice cores. J Geophys Res 108:D6. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001jd002039
Vuille M, Keimig F (2004) Interannual variability of summertime convective cloudiness and precipitation in the central Andes derived from ISCCP-B3 data. J Clim 17:3334–3348. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017%3c3334:IVOSCC%3e2.0.CO;2
Vuille M, Hardy DR, Braun C, Keimig F, Bradley RS (1998) Atmospheric circulation anomalies associated with 1996/1997 summer precipitation events on Sajama Ice Cap, Bolivia. J Geophys Res 103(D10):11191. https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD00681
Vuille M, Bradley RS, Keimig F (2000) Interannual climate variability in the Central Andes and its relation to tropical Pacific and Atlantic forcing. J Geophys Res 105(D10):12447. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900134
Vuille M, Kaser G, Juen I (2008) Glacier mass balance variability in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru and its relationship with climate and the large-scale circulation. Glob Planet Change 62(1–2):14–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.11.003
Wang XY, Li X, Zhu J, Tanajura CAS (2018) The strengthening of Amazonian precipitation during the wet season driven by tropical sea surface temperature forcing. Environ Res Lett 13(9):094015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aadbb9
Wu CM, Stevens B, Arakawa A (2009) What controls the transition from shallow to deep convection? J Atmos Sci 66(6):1793–1806. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAS2945.1
Zeng N, Yoon JH, Marengo Ja, Subramaniam A, Nobre Ca, Mariotti A, Neelin JD (2008) Causes and impacts of the 2005 Amazon drought. Environ Res Lett 3(1):014002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/3/1/014002
Zhang C, Chou MD (1999) Variability of water vapor, infrared radiative cooling, and atmospheric instability for deep convection in the equatorial western Pacific. J Atmos Sci 56(5):711–723. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1999)056%3c0711:VOWVIR%3e2.0.CO;2
Zhou J, Lau KM (1998) Does a monsoon climate exist over South America? J Clim 11(5):1020–1040. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011%3c1020:DAMCEO%3e2.0.CO;2
Zhuang Y, Fu R, Marengo JA, Wang H (2017) Seasonal variation of shallow-to-deep convection transition and its link to the environmental conditions over the Central Amazon. J Geophys Res Atmos 122(5):2649–2666. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD025993
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the IDEX grants of University Grenoble Alpes (UGA), the VASPAT project IDEX “IRS-Initiative de Recherche Stratégique” (part of the ANR project ANR-15-IDEX-02) of UGA and the French AMANECER-MOPGA project funded by ANR and IRD (ref. ANR-18-MPGA-0008). Authors from IGE acknowledge the support of the Labex OSUG@2020 (Investissements d’avenir-ANR10 LABX56). We thank to the CYME team of IGE for constant exchange of ideas that have improved the quality of the research. We give special thanks to J. Ronchail and L. Li of IPSL for their contributions in the framework of H. Segura’s PhD. thesis committee. Finally, we are very grateful to the reviewers because their comments have improved the quality of our study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Segura, H., Espinoza, J.C., Junquas, C. et al. Recent changes in the precipitation-driving processes over the southern tropical Andes/western Amazon. Clim Dyn 54, 2613–2631 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-020-05132-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-020-05132-6