Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The role of biomarkers in the assessment of prostate cancer risk prior to prostate biopsy: Which markers matter and how should they be used?

  • Topic Paper
  • Published:
World Journal of Urology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Prostate cancer (PCa) screening has been substantially influenced by the clinical implementation of serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA). In this context, improvement of early PCa detection and stage migration as well as reduced PCa mortality were achieved, and up-to-date PSA represents the gold standard biomarker of PCa diagnosis together with clinical findings. Nonetheless, PSA shows weakness in discriminating between malign and benign prostatic disease or indolent and aggressive cancers. As a result, the expansion of PSA screening is extensively debated with regard to overdetection and ultimately overtreatment, keeping in mind that PCa is still the third leading cause of cancer-specific mortality in the Western male population. Consequently, today’s task is to increase the accuracy of PCa detection and furthermore to allow stratification for indolent PCa that might permit active surveillance and to filter out aggressive cancers necessitating treatment. Thus, novel biomarkers, especially in combination with approved clinical risk factors (e.g., age or family history of PCa), within multivariable prediction models carry the potential to improve many aspects of PCa diagnosis and to enable risk classification in clinical practice. Multivariable models lead to superior accuracy for PCa prediction instead of the use of a single risk factor. The aim of this article was to present an overview of known risk factors for PCa together with new promising blood- and urine-based biomarkers and their application within risk models that may allow risk stratification for PCa prior to prostate biopsy. Risk models may optimize PCa detection and classification with regard to improved PCa risk assessment and avoidance of unnecessary prostate biopsies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Siegel R, Ma J, Zou Z, Jemal A (2014) Cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64(1):9–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Heidenreich A, Bastian PJ, Bellmunt J, Bolla M, Joniau S, van der Kwast T et al (2014) EAU guidelines on prostate cancer. part 1: screening, diagnosis, and local treatment with curative intent-update 2013. Eur Urol 65(1):124–137

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Clegg LX, Li FP, Hankey BF, Chu K, Edwards BK (2002) Cancer survival among US whites and minorities: a SEER (Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results) program population-based study. Arch Intern Med 162(17):1985–1993

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Paquette EL, Sun L, Paquette LR, Connelly R, McLeod DG, Moul JW (2002) Improved prostate cancer-specific survival and other disease parameters: impact of prostate-specific antigen testing. Urology 60(5):756–759

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Jemal A, Ward E, Thun M (2010) Declining death rates reflect progress against cancer. PLoS ONE 5(3):e9584

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Etzioni R, Gulati R, Falcon S, Penson DF (2008) Impact of PSA screening on the incidence of advanced stage prostate cancer in the United States: a surveillance modeling approach. Med Decis Making 28(3):323–331

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, Lucia MS, Parnes HL et al (2004) Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level < or = 4.0 ng per milliliter. N Engl J Med 350(22):2239–2246

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Schroder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Tammela TL, Ciatto S, Nelen V et al (2009) Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European study. N Engl J Med 360(13):1320–1328

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Etzioni R, Penson DF, Legler JM, di Tommaso D, Boer R, Gann PH et al (2002) Overdiagnosis due to prostate-specific antigen screening: lessons from U.S. prostate cancer incidence trends. J Natl Cancer Inst 94(13):981–990

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Telesca D, Etzioni R, Gulati R (2008) Estimating lead time and overdiagnosis associated with PSA screening from prostate cancer incidence trends. Biometrics 64(1):10–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Loeb S, Gashti SN, Catalona WJ (2009) Exclusion of inflammation in the differential diagnosis of an elevated prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Urol Oncol 27(1):64–66

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Hansen J, Auprich M, Ahyai SA, de la Taille A, van Poppel H, Marberger M et al (2012) Initial prostate biopsy: development and internal validation of a biopsy-specific nomogram based on the prostate cancer antigen 3 assay. Eur Urol 63(2):201–209

  13. Vickers A, Cronin A, Roobol M, Savage C, Peltola M, Pettersson K et al (2010) Reducing unnecessary biopsy during prostate cancer screening using a four-kallikrein panel: an independent replication. J Clin Oncol 28(15):2493–2498

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Nam RK, Saskin R, Lee Y, Liu Y, Law C, Klotz LH et al (2010) Increasing hospital admission rates for urological complications after transrectal ultrasound guided prostate biopsy. J Urol 183(3):963–968

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Ehdaie B, Vertosick E, Spaliviero M, Giallo-Uvino A, Taur Y, O’Sullivan M et al (2014) The impact of repeat biopsies on infectious complications in men with prostate cancer on active surveillance. J Urol 191(3):660–664

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Awsare NS, Green JS, Aldwinckle B, Hanbury DC, Boustead GB, McNicholas TA (2008) The measurement of psychological distress in men being investigated for the presence of prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 11(4):384–389

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Salagierski M, Schalken JA (2012) Molecular diagnosis of prostate cancer: PCA3 and TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion. J Urol 187(3):795–801

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Shariat SF, Semjonow A, Lilja H, Savage C, Vickers AJ, Bjartell A (2011) Tumor markers in prostate cancer I: blood-based markers. Acta Oncol 50(Suppl 1):61–75

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Roobol MJ, Haese A, Bjartell A (2011) Tumour markers in prostate cancer III: biomarkers in urine. Acta Oncol 50(Suppl 1):85–89

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Auprich M, Bjartell A, Chun FK, de la Taille A, Freedland SJ, Haese A et al (2011) Contemporary role of prostate cancer antigen 3 in the management of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 60(5):1045–1054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bensalah K, Montorsi F, Shariat SF (2007) Challenges of cancer biomarker profiling. Eur Urol 52(6):1601–1609

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Chun FK, Karakiewicz PI, Huland H, Graefen M (2007) Role of nomograms for prostate cancer in 2007. World J Urol 25(2):131–142

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Cernei N, Heger Z, Gumulec J, Zitka O, Masarik M, Babula P et al (2013) Sarcosine as a potential prostate cancer biomarker—a review. Int J Mol Sci 14(7):13893–13908

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Haj-Ahmad TA, Abdalla MA, Haj-Ahmad Y (2014) Potential urinary protein biomarker candidates for the accurate detection of prostate cancer among benign prostatic hyperplasia patients. J Cancer 5(2):103–114

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gann PH (2002) Risk factors for prostate cancer. Rev Urol 4(Suppl 5):S3–S10

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Li J, Djenaba JA, Soman A, Rim SH, Master VA (2012) Recent trends in prostate cancer incidence by age, cancer stage, and grade, the United States, 2001–2007. Prostate Cancer 2012:691380

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Li J, German R, King J, Joseph D, Thompson T, Wu XC et al (2012) Recent trends in prostate cancer testing and incidence among men under age of 50. Cancer Epidemiol 36(2):122–127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. McDavid K, Lee J, Fulton JP, Tonita J, Thompson TD (2004) Prostate cancer incidence and mortality rates and trends in the United States and Canada. Public Health Rep 119(2):174–186

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Holmberg L, Van Hemelrijck M (2014) The biology and natural history of prostate cancer: a short introduction. Recent results in cancer research Fortschritte der Krebsforschung Progres dans les recherches sur le cancer 202:1–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Steinberg GD, Carter BS, Beaty TH, Childs B, Walsh PC (1990) Family history and the risk of prostate cancer. Prostate 17(4):337–347

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Alvarez-Cubero MJ, Saiz M, Martinez-Gonzalez LJ, Alvarez JC, Lorente JA, Cozar JM (2013) Genetic analysis of the principal genes related to prostate cancer: a review. Urol Oncol 31(8):1419–1429

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Kashyap A, Kluzniak W, Wokolorczyk D, Golab A, Sikorski A, Slojewski M et al (2014) The presence of prostate cancer at biopsy is predicted by a number of genetic variants. Int J Cancer 134(5):1139–1146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Gosselaar C, Roobol MJ, Roemeling S, Schroder FH (2008) The role of the digital rectal examination in subsequent screening visits in the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer (ERSPC), Rotterdam. Eur Urol 54(3):581–588

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Kim YM, Park S, Kim J, Park S, Lee JH, Ryu DS et al (2013) Role of prostate volume in the early detection of prostate cancer in a cohort with slowly increasing prostate specific antigen. Yonsei Med J 54(5):1202–1206

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Freedland SJ, Wen J, Wuerstle M, Shah A, Lai D, Moalej B et al (2008) Obesity is a significant risk factor for prostate cancer at the time of biopsy. Urology 72(5):1102–1105

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Rundle A, Jankowski M, Kryvenko ON, Tang D, Rybicki BA (2013) Obesity and future prostate cancer risk among men after an initial benign biopsy of the prostate. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 22(5):898–904

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Murphy AB, Akereyeni F, Nyame YA, Guy MC, Martin IK, Hollowell CM et al (2013) Smoking and prostate cancer in a multi-ethnic cohort. Prostate 73(14):1518–1528

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Yli-Hemminki TH, Laurila M, Auvinen A, Maattanen L, Huhtala H, Tammela TL et al (2013) Histological inflammation and risk of subsequent prostate cancer among men with initially elevated serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) concentration in the Finnish prostate cancer screening trial. BJU Int 112(6):735–741

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Gann PH, Fought A, Deaton R, Catalona WJ, Vonesh E (2010) Risk factors for prostate cancer detection after a negative biopsy: a novel multivariable longitudinal approach. J Clin Oncol 28(10):1714–1720

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Jeong IG, Lim JH, Hwang SS, Kim SC, You D, Hong JH et al (2013) Nomogram using transrectal ultrasound-derived information predicting the detection of high grade prostate cancer on initial biopsy. Prostate Int 1(2):69–75

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Zaytoun OM, Kattan MW, Moussa AS, Li J, Yu C, Jones JS (2011) Development of improved nomogram for prediction of outcome of initial prostate biopsy using readily available clinical information. Urology 78(2):392–398

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Nicolaiew N, Ploussard G, Chun FK, Xylinas E, Allory Y, Salomon L et al (2013) Prediction of the risk of harboring prostate cancer by a prebiopsy nomogram based on extended biopsy protocol. Urol Int 90(3):306–311

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Guazzoni G, Nava L, Lazzeri M, Scattoni V, Lughezzani G, Maccagnano C et al (2011) Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) isoform p2PSA significantly improves the prediction of prostate cancer at initial extended prostate biopsies in patients with total PSA between 2.0 and 10 ng/ml: results of a prospective study in a clinical setting. Eur Urol 60(2):214–222

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Schostak M, Schwall GP, Poznanovic S, Groebe K, Muller M, Messinger D et al (2009) Annexin A3 in urine: a highly specific noninvasive marker for prostate cancer early detection. J Urol 181(1):343–353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Stephan C, Jung K, Semjonow A, Schulze-Forster K, Cammann H, Hu X et al (2013) Comparative assessment of urinary prostate cancer antigen 3 and TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion with the serum [-2]proprostate-specific antigen-based prostate health index for detection of prostate cancer. Clin Chem 59(1):280–288

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. de la Taille A, Irani J, Graefen M, Chun F, de Reijke T, Kil P et al (2011) Clinical evaluation of the PCA3 assay in guiding initial biopsy decisions. J Urol 185(6):2119–2125

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Chun FK, de la Taille A, van Poppel H, Marberger M, Stenzl A, Mulders PF et al (2009) Prostate cancer gene 3 (PCA3): development and internal validation of a novel biopsy nomogram. Eur Urol 56(4):659–667

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Bensalah K, Lotan Y, Karam JA, Shariat SF (2008) New circulating biomarkers for prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Dis 11(2):112–120

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Shariat SF, Karam JA, Margulis V, Karakiewicz PI (2008) New blood-based biomarkers for the diagnosis, staging and prognosis of prostate cancer. BJU Int 101(6):675–683

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Leyten GH, Hessels D, Jannink SA, Smit FP, de Jong H, Cornel EB et al (2014) Prospective multicentre evaluation of PCA3 and TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusions as diagnostic and prognostic urinary biomarkers for prostate cancer. Eur Urol 65(3):534–542

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Salami SS, Schmidt F, Laxman B, Regan MM, Rickman DS, Scherr D et al (2013) Combining urinary detection of TMPRSS2:ERG and PCA3 with serum PSA to predict diagnosis of prostate cancer. Urol Oncol 31(5):566–571

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Perdona S, Bruzzese D, Ferro M, Autorino R, Marino A, Mazzarella C et al (2013) Prostate health index (phi) and prostate cancer antigen 3 (PCA3) significantly improve diagnostic accuracy in patients undergoing prostate biopsy. Prostate 73(3):227–235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Scattoni V, Lazzeri M, Lughezzani G, De Luca S, Passera R, Bollito E et al (2013) Head-to-head comparison of prostate health index and urinary PCA3 for predicting cancer at initial or repeat biopsy. J Urol 190(2):496–501

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Vickers AJ, Cronin AM, Roobol MJ, Savage CJ, Peltola M, Pettersson K et al (2010) A four-kallikrein panel predicts prostate cancer in men with recent screening: data from the European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer, Rotterdam. Clin Cancer Res 16(12):3232–3239

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Chevli KK, Duff M, Walter P, Yu C, Capuder B, Elshafei A et al (2013) Urinary PCA3 as a predictor for prostate cancer in a cohort of 3073 men undergoing initial prostate biopsy. J Urol [Epub 2013/12/18]

  56. De Luca S, Passera R, Cappia S, Bollito E, Randone DF, Milillo A et al (2014) The fluctuation of PCA3 score in men undergoing first or repeat prostate biopsies. BJU Int [Epub 2014/01/30]

  57. Ruffion A, Perrin P, Devonec M, Champetier D, Decaussin M, Paparel P et al (2014) Additional value of PCA3 density to predict initial prostate biopsy outcome. World J Urol [Epub 2014/02/14]

  58. Perner S, Mosquera JM, Demichelis F, Hofer MD, Paris PL, Simko J et al (2007) TMPRSS2-ERG fusion prostate cancer: an early molecular event associated with invasion. Am J Surg Pathol 31(6):882–888

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tomlins SA, Aubin SM, Siddiqui J, Lonigro RJ, Sefton-Miller L, Miick S et al (2011) Urine TMPRSS2:ERG fusion transcript stratifies prostate cancer risk in men with elevated serum PSA. Sci Transl Med 3(94):72–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Cornu JN, Cancel-Tassin G, Egrot C, Gaffory C, Haab F, Cussenot O (2013) Urine TMPRSS2:ERG fusion transcript integrated with PCA3 score, genotyping, and biological features are correlated to the results of prostatic biopsies in men at risk of prostate cancer. Prostate 73(3):242–249

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Hessels D, Smit FP, Verhaegh GW, Witjes JA, Cornel EB, Schalken JA (2007) Detection of TMPRSS2-ERG fusion transcripts and prostate cancer antigen 3 in urinary sediments may improve diagnosis of prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 13(17):5103–5108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Rice KR, Chen Y, Ali A, Whitman EJ, Blase A, Ibrahim M et al (2010) Evaluation of the ETS-related gene mRNA in urine for the detection of prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 16(5):1572–1576

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Lilja H, Ulmert D, Vickers AJ (2008) Prostate-specific antigen and prostate cancer: prediction, detection and monitoring. Nat Rev 8(4):268–278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Schroder FH, Carter HB, Wolters T, van den Bergh RC, Gosselaar C, Bangma CH et al (2008) Early detection of prostate cancer in 2007. Part 1: PSA and PSA kinetics. Eur Urol 53(3):468–477

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Shariat SF, Karakiewicz PI, Margulis V, Kattan MW (2008) Inventory of prostate cancer predictive tools. Curr Opin Urol 18(3):279–296

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Lee R, Localio AR, Armstrong K, Malkowicz SB, Schwartz JS (2006) A meta-analysis of the performance characteristics of the free prostate-specific antigen test. Urology 67(4):762–768

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Mikolajczyk SD, Marks LS, Partin AW, Rittenhouse HG (2002) Free prostate-specific antigen in serum is becoming more complex. Urology 59(6):797–802

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Mikolajczyk SD, Marker KM, Millar LS, Kumar A, Saedi MS, Payne JK et al (2001) A truncated precursor form of prostate-specific antigen is a more specific serum marker of prostate cancer. Cancer Res 61(18):6958–6963

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Epstein JI, Walsh PC, Carmichael M, Brendler CB (1994) Pathologic and clinical findings to predict tumor extent of nonpalpable (stage T1c) prostate cancer. JAMA 271(5):368–374

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Sokoll LJ, Sanda MG, Feng Z, Kagan J, Mizrahi IA, Broyles DL et al (2010) A prospective, multicenter, National Cancer Institute Early Detection Research Network study of [-2]proPSA: improving prostate cancer detection and correlating with cancer aggressiveness. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19(5):1193–1200

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Lazzeri M, Abrate A, Lughezzani G, Gadda GM, Freschi M, Mistretta F et al (2013) Relationship of chronic histologic prostatic inflammation in biopsy specimens with serum isoform [-2]proPSA (p2PSA), %p2PSA, and prostate health index in men with a total prostate-specific antigen of 4–10 ng/mL and normal digital rectal examination. Urology [Epub 2013/12/10]

  72. Nichol MB, Wu J, Huang J, Denham D, Frencher SK, Jacobsen SJ (2012) Cost-effectiveness of Prostate Health Index for prostate cancer detection. BJU Int 110(3):353–362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Jansen FH, van Schaik RH, Kurstjens J, Horninger W, Klocker H, Bektic J et al (2010) Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) isoform p2PSA in combination with total PSA and free PSA improves diagnostic accuracy in prostate cancer detection. Eur Urol 57(6):921–927

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Lazzeri M, Haese A, Abrate A, de la Taille A, Redorta JP, McNicholas T et al (2013) Clinical performance of serum prostate-specific antigen isoform [-2]proPSA (p2PSA) and its derivatives, %p2PSA and the prostate health index (PHI), in men with a family history of prostate cancer: results from a multicentre European study, the PROMEtheuS project. BJU Int 112(3):313–321

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Catalona WJ, Partin AW, Sanda MG, Wei JT, Klee GG, Bangma CH et al (2011) A multicenter study of [-2]pro-prostate specific antigen combined with prostate specific antigen and free prostate specific antigen for prostate cancer detection in the 2.0 to 10.0 ng/ml prostate specific antigen range. J Urol 185(5):1650–1655

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Lughezzani G, Lazzeri M, Haese A, McNicholas T, de la Taille A, Buffi NM et al (2013) Multicenter European external validation of a prostate health index-based nomogram for predicting prostate cancer at extended biopsy. Eur Urol. Epub 2013/12/24

  77. Lughezzani G, Lazzeri M, Larcher A, Lista G, Scattoni V, Cestari A et al (2012) Development and internal validation of a Prostate Health Index based nomogram for predicting prostate cancer at extended biopsy. J Urol 188(4):1144–1150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Becker C, Piironen T, Pettersson K, Hugosson J, Lilja H (2000) Clinical value of human glandular kallikrein 2 and free and total prostate-specific antigen in serum from a population of men with prostate-specific antigen levels 3.0 ng/mL or greater. Urology 55(5):694–699

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Sinnott M, Falzarano SM, Hernandez AV, Jones JS, Klein EA, Zhou M et al (2012) Discrepancy in prostate cancer localization between biopsy and prostatectomy specimens in patients with unilateral positive biopsy: implications for focal therapy. Prostate 72(11):1179–1186

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Djavan B, Ravery V, Zlotta A, Dobronski P, Dobrovits M, Fakhari M et al (2001) Prospective evaluation of prostate cancer detected on biopsies 1, 2, 3 and 4: when should we stop? J Urol 166(5):1679–1683

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Loeb S, Vellekoop A, Ahmed HU, Catto J, Emberton M, Nam R et al (2013) Systematic review of complications of prostate biopsy. Eur Urol 64(6):876–892

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Kirby R, Fitzpatrick JM (2012) Optimising repeat prostate biopsy decisions and procedures. BJU Int 109(12):1750–1754

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Haese A, de la Taille A, van Poppel H, Marberger M, Stenzl A, Mulders PF et al (2008) Clinical utility of the PCA3 urine assay in European men scheduled for repeat biopsy. Eur Urol 54(5):1081–1088

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. US Food and Drug Administration, http://www.accessdatafdagov/cdrh_docs/pdf10/p100033apdf. Access date 22, Dec 2014

  85. Capoluongo E, Zambon CF, Basso D, Boccia S, Rocchetti S, Leoncini E et al (2014) PCA3 score of 20 could improve prostate cancer detection: results obtained on 734 Italian individuals. Clinica chimica acta Int J Clin Chem 429:46–50

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Porpiglia F, Russo F, Manfredi M, Mele F, Fiori C, Bollito E et al (2014) The roles of multiparametric MRI, PCA3, and PHI: which is the best predictor of prostate cancer after a negative biopsy? Results of a prospective study. J Urol [Epub 2014/02/13]

  87. Hoeks CM, Barentsz JO, Hambrock T, Yakar D, Somford DM, Heijmink SW et al (2011) Prostate cancer: multiparametric MR imaging for detection, localization, and staging. Radiology 261(1):46–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Vaananen RM, Lilja H, Kauko L, Helo P, Kekki H, Cronin AM et al (2014) Cancer-associated changes in the expression of TMPRSS2-ERG, PCA3, and SPINK1 in histologically benign tissue from cancerous vs noncancerous prostatectomy specimens. Urology 83(2):511e1–511e7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Park K, Dalton JT, Narayanan R, Barbieri CE, Hancock ML, Bostwick DG et al (2014) TMPRSS2:ERG gene fusion predicts subsequent detection of prostate cancer in patients with high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. J Clin Oncol 32(3):206–211

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Moussa AS, Jones JS, Yu C, Fareed K, Kattan MW (2010) Development and validation of a nomogram for predicting a positive repeat prostate biopsy in patients with a previous negative biopsy session in the era of extended prostate sampling. BJU Int 106(9):1309–1314

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Roscigno M, Scattoni V, Freschi M, Abdollah F, Maccagnano C, Galosi A et al (2012) Diagnosis of isolated high-grade prostatic intra-epithelial neoplasia: proposal of a nomogram for the prediction of cancer detection at saturation re-biopsy. BJU Int 109(9):1329–1334

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kranse R, Roobol M, Schroder FH (2008) A graphical device to represent the outcomes of a logistic regression analysis. Prostate 68(15):1674–1680

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Thompson IM, Ankerst DP, Chi C, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, Lucia MS et al (2006) Assessing prostate cancer risk: results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 98(8):529–534

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Ankerst DP, Groskopf J, Day JR, Blase A, Rittenhouse H, Pollock BH et al (2008) Predicting prostate cancer risk through incorporation of prostate cancer gene 3. J Urol 180(4):1303–1308

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Ankerst DP, Koniarski T, Liang Y, Leach RJ, Feng Z, Sanda MG et al (2012) Updating risk prediction tools: a case study in prostate cancer. Biometr J Biometrische Zeitschrift 54(1):127–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Ankerst DP HJ, Bock S, Goodman PJ, Vickers A, Hernandez J, Sokoll LJ, Sanda MG, Wei JT, Leach RJ, Thompson IM. (2014) The prostate cancer prevention trial risk calculator 2.0 for the prediction of low- versus high-grade prostate cancer. Urology (to appear)

  97. Walz J, Haese A, Scattoni V, Steuber T, Chun FK, Briganti A et al (2008) Percent free prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an accurate predictor of prostate cancer risk in men with serum PSA 2.5 ng/mL and lower. Cancer 113(10):2695–2703

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Chun FK, Briganti A, Graefen M, Montorsi F, Porter C, Scattoni V et al (2007) Development and external validation of an extended 10-core biopsy nomogram. Eur Urol 52(2):436–444

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Chun FK, Briganti A, Graefen M, Porter C, Montorsi F, Haese A et al (2007) Development and external validation of an extended repeat biopsy nomogram. J Urol 177(2):510–515

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

None.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urology, University Hospital Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany

    Marianne Schmid, Margit Fisch, Felix K. Chun & Jens Hansen

  2. Division of Urologic Surgery, Center for Surgery and Public Health, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Marianne Schmid & Quoc-Dien Trinh

  3. Martini-Clinic, Prostate Cancer Center, Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany

    Markus Graefen

Authors
  1. Marianne Schmid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Quoc-Dien Trinh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Markus Graefen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Margit Fisch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Felix K. Chun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jens Hansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jens Hansen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schmid, M., Trinh, QD., Graefen, M. et al. The role of biomarkers in the assessment of prostate cancer risk prior to prostate biopsy: Which markers matter and how should they be used?. World J Urol 32, 871–880 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-014-1317-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-014-1317-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation