Abstract
Predominant dislocation types in solar silicon are dissociated into 30°- and 90°-partials with reconstructed cores. Besides shallow 1D-band localized in their strain field and a quasi-2D band at the stacking fault connecting the two partials, the existence of several intrinsic core defects with deep lying levels has been demonstrated by electron spin resonance. The majority of core defects occur in nonequilibrium situations and, with the exception of a small EPR-signal assigned to a reconstruction defect, vanish after careful annealing above 800°C. There is good evidence now that part of deep levels observed in dislocated silicon is associated with impurities, especially with transition metal impurities. Electron-hole-pair recombination at a dislocation mainly runs via its shallow bands and is strongly increased by impurities bound to its core or in the strain field. The concentration of these impurities can be reduced by gettering processes to such a low level that radiative recombination at dislocations yields a luminescence efficiency of 0.1% at room temperature.
A quite coherent picture has emerged for metal impurity precipitation in silicon. Early stages of precipitation in defect-free silicon are characterised by kinetically selected metastable defects forming as a result of large chemical driving forces for precipitation. Such defects are associated with deep level spectra which show the properties of extended multielectron defects. The evolution of the system to energetically more favourable configurations proceeds via ordinary particle coarsening but also via internal ripening, a process reminiscent of the above-mentioned metastable defects. Electronically, the defects evolve into metal-like inclusions which in general seem to act as strong recombination centers for minority carriers. In the presence of dislocations metastable defects quickly transform into equilibrium structures in the course of precipitation or do not form at all. In the presence of several metal impurities silicide precipitates which can be described as solid solutions of the respective metal atoms are observed, which is at least qualitatively in accord with ternary phase diagrams. Like single-metal silicide precipitates, strong minority carrier recombination is also typical for those multi-metal silicide particles.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
R.M. Swanson, Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 14, 443 (2006)
V. Kveder, M. Kittler, W. Schröter, Phys. Rev. B 63, 115208 (2001)
W. Schröter, H. Cerva, Solid State Phenomena 85–86, 67 (2002)
S.M. Myers, M. Seibt, W. Schröter, J. Appl. Phys. 88, 3795 (2000)
M. Seibt, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, O. Voß, Phys. Status Solidi A 202, 911 (2005)
M. Kittler, J. Lärz, W. Seifert, M. Seibt, W. Schröter, Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 911 (1991)
M. Seibt, W. Schröter, Philos. Mag. 59, 337 (1989)
M. Seibt, H. Hedemann, A.A. Istratov, F. Riedel, A. Sattler, W. Schröter, Phys. Status Solidi A 171, 301 (1999)
W. Schröter, M. Seibt, D. Gilles, in Handbook of Semiconductor Technology, ed. by K.A. Jackson, W. Schröter, vol. 1 (Wiley, New York, 2000), p. 597
F. Riedel, W. Schröter, Phys. Rev. B 62, 7150 (2000)
P.S. Plekhanov, T.Y. Tan, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 3777 (2000)
P. Formanek, M. Kittler, J. Appl. Phys. 97, 063707 (2005)
T. Buonassisi, A.A. Istratov, M.D. Pickett, M. Heuer, J.P. Kalejs, G. Hahn, M.A. Marcus, B. Lai, Z. Cai, S.M. Heald, T.F. Ciszek, R.F. Clark, D.W. Cunningham, A.M. Gabor, R. Jonczyk, S. Narayanan, E. Sauar, E.R. Weber, Prog. Photovolt. 14, 513 (2006)
H. Alexander, H. Teichler, in Handbook of Semiconductor Technology, ed. by K.A. Jackson, W. Schröter, vol. 1 (Wiley, New York, 2000), p. 338
J. Rabier, P. Cordier, J.L. Dement, H. Garem, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 309–310, 74 (2001)
N. Lehto, S. Marklund, W. Yong-Liang, Solid State Commun. 92, 987 (1994)
F.D. Wöhler, H. Alexander, W. Sander, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 31, 1381 (1970)
V.A. Grazhulis, Yu.A. Osipian, Sov. Phys. JETP 31, 677 (1970)
V.V. Kveder, Yu.A. Osipian, M.N. Zolotukhin, Sov. Phys. JETP 53, 160 (1981)
V. Kveder, T. Sekiguchi, K. Sumino, Phys. Rev. B 51(23), 16721 (1995)
V.V. Kveder, Yu.A. Ossipian, I.R. Sagdeev, A.I. Shalynin, M.N. Zolotukhin, Phys. Status Solidi A 87, 657 (1985)
M. Brohl, H. Alexander, in Structure and Properties of Dislocations in Semiconductors, ed. by S.G. Roberts, D.B. Holt, P.R. Wilshaw, IOP Conf. Proc. No. 104, Institute of Physics, London, 1989, p. 163
A. Castaldini, D. Cavalcoli, A. Cavallini, S. Pizzini, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 076401 (2005)
M. Kittler, C. Ulhaq-Bouillet, V. Higgs, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4573 (1995)
V. Higgs, M. Kittler, Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2804 (1994)
M. Kittler, W. Seifert, Scanning Microsc. 15, 316 (1993)
M. Kittler, W. Seifert, V. Higgs, Phys. Status Solidi A 137, 327 (1993)
K. Knobloch, M. Kittler, W. Seifert, J.J. Simon, I. Perichaud, Solid State Phenomena 63–64, 105 (1998)
S. Kusanagi, T. Sekiguchi, B. Shen, K. Sumino, Mater. Sci. Technol. 11, 685 (1995)
B. Shen, T. Sekiguchi, K. Sumino, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 35, 3301 (1996)
N. Fujita, R.J. Söberg, P.R. Briddon, A.T. Blumenau, Solid State Phenomena 131–133, 259 (2008)
W. Schröter, Phys Status Solidi A 19, 159 (1973)
A. Ourmazd, Cryst. Res. Technol. 16, 137 (1981)
P.R. Wilshaw, G.R. Booker, Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser. 76, 329 (1985)
R. Labusch, J. Phys. 40, 681 (1979)
R. Labusch, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 14, 12801 (2002)
W. Schröter, J. Kronewitz, U. Gnauert, F. Riedel, M. Seibt, Phys. Rev. B 52, 13726 (1995)
W. Schröter, H. Hedemann, V. Kveder, F. Riedel, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 14, 13047 (2002)
V.V. Kveder, Yu.A. Osipian, W. Schröter, G. Zoth, Phys. Status Solidi A 72, 701713 (1982)
P. Omling, E.R. Weber, L. Montelius, H. Alexander, J. Michel, Phys. Rev. B 32, 6571 (1985)
V. Kveder, V. Orlov, M. Khorosheva, M. Seibt, Solid State Phenomena 131–133, 175 (2008)
J.R. Patel, L.C. Kimerling, J. Phys. 40, 667 (1979)
P. Omling, E.R. Weber, L. Montelius, H. Alexander, J. Michel, Phys. Rev. B 32, 6571 (1985)
D. Cavalcoli, A. Cavallini, E. Gombia, Phys. Rev. B 56, 10208 (1997)
V. Kveder, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, A. Sattler, Solid State Phenomena 82–84, 361 (2002)
D. Maroudas, R.A. Brown, J. Appl. Phys. 69, 3865 (1991)
O.V. Kononchuk, V.V. Nikitenko, V.I. Orlov, E.B. Yakimow, Phys. Status Solidi A 143, K5 (1994)
O. Kononchuk, V. Orlov, O. Feklisova, E. Yakimov, Solid State Phenomena 51–52, 15 (1996)
R. Bullough, R.C. Newman, Prog. Semicond. 7, 100 (1963)
K. Knobloch, M. Kittler, W. Seifert, J. Appl. Phys. 93, 21069 (2003)
O. Voß, V.V. Kveder, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, Phys. Status Solidi C 6, 1847 (2005)
O. Voß, V. Kveder, M. Seibt, Phys. Status Solidi A 204, 2185 (2007)
A. Rodriguez, H. Brachta, I. Yonenaga, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 7841 (2004)
M. Seibt, A. Sattler, C. Rudolf, O. Voß, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, Phys. Status Solidi A 203, 696 (2006)
V. Kveder, M. Badylevich, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, E. Steinman, A. Izotov, Phys. Status Solidi A 202, 901 (2005)
V. Kveder, M. Badylevich, E. Steinman, A. Izotov, M. Seibt, W. Schröter, Appl. Phys. Lett. 84, 2106 (2004)
M. Östling, C. Zaring, in Properties of Metal Silicides, ed. by K. Maex, M. van Rossum (emis data review series No.14, INSPEC, London 1995), p. 31
D.R. Hamann, Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 313 (1988)
V.J. Chabal, D.R. Hamann, J.E. Rowe, M. Schlüter, Phys. Rev. B 25, 7598 (1982)
J. Tersoff, D.R. Hamann, Phys. Rev. B 28, 1168 (1983)
K.A. Mäder, H. von Känel, Phys. Rev. B 48, 4364 (1993)
N.E. Christensen, Phys. Rev. B 42, 7148 (1990)
N. Cherief, C. D’Anterroches, R.C. Cinti, T.A. Nguyen Tan, J. Derrien, Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 1671 (1989)
J.W. Christian, The Theory of Transformation in Metals and Alloys (Pergamon, Elmsford, 1975), p. 437
R. Wagner, R. Kampmann, in Handbook of Materials Science and Technology, vol. 5, ed. by R.W. Cahn, P. Haasen, E.J. Kramer (VCH, Weinheim, 1991), p. 212
W. Schröter, M. Seibt, in: Properties of Crystalline Silicon, ed. by R. Hull, The Institute of Electrical Engineering 1999, pp. 543 and 561
J. Utzig, J. Appl. Phys. 65, 3868 (1989)
A.A. Istratov, H. Hieslmair, E.R. Weber, Appl. Phys. A 69, 13 (1999)
M. Seibt, in Semiconductor Silicon 1990, ed. by H.R. Huff, Y. Takeshi, W. Bergholz (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, 1990), p. 663
M. Seibt, Solid State Phenomena 19–20, 45 (1991)
M. Seibt, A. Griess, A.A. Istratov, H. Hedemann, A. Sattler, W. Schröter, Phys. Status Solidi A 166, 171 (1998)
E. Nes, J. Washburn, J. Appl. Phys. 42, 3562 (1971)
O.F. Vyvenko, Solid State Phenomena 63–64, 301 (1998)
A. Sattler, H. Hedemann, A.A. Istratov, M. Seibt, W. Schröter, Solid State Phenomena 63–64, 369 (1998)
R. Khalil, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, Solid State Phenomena 108–109, 109 (2004)
R. Khalil, V. Kveder, W. Schröter, M. Seibt, Phys. Status Solidi C 2, 1802 (2005)
M.G. Wardle, J.P. Goss, P.R. Briddon, R. Jones, Phys. Status Solidi A 202, 883 (2005)
W. Schröter, H. Hedemann, V. Kveder, F. Riedel, J. Phys. Condens. Matter 14, 13047 (2002)
H. Hedemann, W. Schröter, Solid State Phenomena 57–58, 293 (1997)
M.V. Trushin, O.F. Vyvenko, Phys. Status Solidi C 4, 3056 (2007)
A.A. Istratov, H. Hedemann, M. Seibt, O.F. Vyvenko, W. Schröter, T. Heiser, C. Flink, H. Hieslmair, E.R. Weber, J. Electrochem. Soc. 145, 3889 (1998)
C. Flink, H. Feick, S.A. McHugo, W. Seifert, H. Hieslmair, T. Heiser, A.A. Istratov, E.R. Weber, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 4900 (2000)
J.J. van Kooten, E.G. Sieverts, C.A.J. Ammerlaan, Solid State Commun. 64, 1489 (1987)
S.H. Muller, G.M. Tuymann, E.G. Sieverts, C.A.J. Ammerlaan, Phys. Rev. B 25, 25 (1982)
H. von Känel, K.A. Mäder, E. Müller, M. Onda, H. Sirringhaus, Phys. Rev. B 45, 13807 (1992)
N. Onda, J. Henz, E. Müller, K.A. Mäder, H. von Känel, Appl. Surf. Sci. 56–58, 421 (1992)
M.G. Grimaldi, P. Baeri, C. Spinella, S. Lagomarsino, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60, 1132 (1992)
R.L. Maltez, M. Behar, X.W. Lin, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Rev. B 106, 400 (1995)
Y. Gao, S.P. Wong, W.Y. Cheung, G. Shao, K.P. Homewood, Appl. Phys. Lett. 83, 638 (2003)
M. Seibt, K. Graff, J. Appl. Phys. 63, 4444 (1989)
A.G. Cullis, L.E. Katz, Philos. Mag. 30, 1419 (1974)
K. Honda, A. Ohsawa, N. Toyokura, Appl. Phys. Lett. 45, 270 (1984)
J. Wong-Leung, D.J. Eaglesham, J. Sapjeta, D.C. Jacobson, J.M. Poate, J.S. Williams, J. Appl. Phys. 83, 580 (1998)
M. Seibt, unpublished results
J.M. Silcock, W.J. Tunstall, Philos. Mag. 10, 361 (1964)
E. Nes, Acta. Metall. 22, 81 (1974)
J.K. Solberg, Acta Crystallogr. A 34, 684 (1978)
A. Broniatowski, Phys. Rev. Lett. 63, 3074 (1989)
M. Kittler, C. Ulhaq-Bouillet, V. Higgs, J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4573 (1995)
M. Kittler, W. Seifert, Mat. Sci. Forum 196–201, 1123 (1995)
M. Seibt, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 262, 957 (1992)
W.C. Dash, J. Appl. Phys. 27, 1193 (1956)
H. Ewe, D. Gilles, S.K. Hahn, M. Seibt, W. Schröter, in Semiconductor Silicon, ed. by H.R. Huff, W. Bergholz, K. Sumino (The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, 1994), p. 796
H. Ewe, Ph.D. Thesis, Göttingen, 1996
M. Seibt, V. Kveder, Solid State Phenomena 95–96, 447 (2004)
A.A. Istratov, T. Buonassisi, R.J. McDonald, A.R. Smith, R. Schindler, J.A. Rand, J.P. Kalejs, E.R. Weber, J. Appl. Phys. 94, 6552 (2003)
M. Setton, in Properties of Metal Silicides, ed. by K. Maex, M. van Rossum (emis data review, series No. 14, INSPEC, London, 1995), p. 129
E.M. Sokolovskaya, O.I. Chernikova, E.I. Gladyshevsky, O.I. Bodak, Russ. Metall. 6, 114 (1973). Translated from Izv. Nauk SSSR Met.
T. Buonassisi, M. Heuer, A.A. Istratov, M.D. Pickett, M.A. Marcus, B. Lai, Z. Cai, S.M. Heald, E.R. Weber, Acta Mater. 55, 6119 (2007)
M. Heuer, T. Buonassisi, M.A. Marcus, A.A. Istratov, M.D. Pickett, T. Shibata, E.R. Weber, Phys. Rev. B 73, 235204 (2006)
M. Heuer, T. Buonassisi, A.A. Istratov, M.D. Pickett, M.A. Marcus, A.M. Minor, E.R. Weber, J. Appl. Phys. 101, 123510 (2007)
H. Nordmark, M. Di Sabatino, E.J. Øvrelid, J.C. Walmsley, R. Holmestad, Proceedings of 22nd EUPVSEC, 3–7 Sept. 2007 Milan, Italy, p. 1710
C. Rudolf, P. Saring, L. Stolze, M. Seibt, Mater. Sci. Eng. B, in press
P. Saring, C. Rudolf, L. Stolze, M. Seibt, Mater. Sci. Eng. B, in press
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Open Access This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0 ), which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
About this article
Cite this article
Seibt, M., Khalil, R., Kveder, V. et al. Electronic states at dislocations and metal silicide precipitates in crystalline silicon and their role in solar cell materials. Appl. Phys. A 96, 235–253 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-008-5027-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-008-5027-8