Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Distribution of two species of sea snakes, Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus, in the southern Great Barrier Reef: metapopulation dynamics, marine protected areas and conservation

  • Report
  • Published:
Coral Reefs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus typically occur in spatially discrete populations, characteristic of metapopulations; however, little is known about the factors influencing the spatial and temporal stability of populations or whether specific conservation strategies, such as networks of marine protected areas, will ensure the persistence of species. Classification tree analyses of 35 years of distribution data (90 reefs, surveyed 1–11 times) in the southern Great Barrier Reef (GBR) revealed that longitude was a major factor determining the status of A. laevis on reefs (present = 38, absent = 38 and changed = 14). Reef exposure and reef area were also important; however, these factors did not specifically account for the population fluctuations and the recent local extinctions of A. laevis in this region. There were no relationships between the status of E. annulatus (present = 16, absent = 68 and changed = 6) and spatial or physical variables. Moreover, prior protection status of reefs did not account for the distribution of either species. Biotic factors, such as habitat and prey availability and the distribution of predators, which may account for the observed patterns of distribution, are discussed. The potential for inter-population exchange among sea snake populations is poorly understood, as is the degree of protection that will be afforded to sea snakes by the recently implemented network of No-take areas in the GBR. Data from this study provide a baseline for evaluating the responses of A. laevis and E. annulatus populations to changes in biotic factors and the degree of protection afforded on reefs within an ecosystem network of No-take marine protected areas in the southern GBR.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

References

  • Alcala AC (2004) Marine reserves as tool for fishery management and biodiversity conservation: natural experiments in the central Philippines, 1974–2000. Silliman University-Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management, Dumaguete City

  • Armsworth PR (2002) Recruitment limitation, population regulation, and larval connectivity in reef fish metapopulations. Ecology 83:1092–1104

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass DK, Miller I (1996) Crown-of-thorns starfish and coral surveys using the manta tow and SCUBA search techniques. Long-term monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef: standard operational procedure number 1. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville

  • Bode M, Bode L, Armsworth PR (2006) Larval dispersal reveals regional sources and sinks in the Great Barrier Reef. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 308:17–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Breiman L, Friedman JH, Olshen RA, Stone CG (1984) Classification and regression trees. Wadsworth International Group, Belmont, CA

  • Bryant D, Burke L, McManus J, Spalding M (1998) A map based indicator of threats to the world’s coral reefs. World Resource Institute, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns GW (1984) Aspects of population movements and reproductive biology of Aipysurus laevis, the olive sea snake. Ph.D. thesis, University of New England, p 171

  • Burns GW, Heatwole H (1998) Home range and habitat use of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis, on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. J Hepatol 32:350–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Cogger H (2000) Reptiles and amphibians of Australia. Reed Books, Melbourne, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Commonwealth of Australia (1999) Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EP&BC) Act. Environment Australia, Canberra

  • Commonwealth of Australia (2002) Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Reserve (Commonwealth Waters) Management Plans. Environment Australia, Canberra

  • Cowen RK, Paris CB, Srinivasan A (2006) Scaling of connectivity in marine populations. Science 311:522–527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowder LB, Lyman SJ, Figuerina WG, Priddy J (2000) Source-sink dynamics and the problem of siting marine reserves. Bull Mar Sci 66:799–820

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowder LB, Figuerina WG (2006) Metapopulation ecology and marine conservation. In: Kritzer JP, Sale PF (eds) Marine metapopulations, Elsevier, San Diego, CA, USA, pp 491–515

    Google Scholar 

  • Day J, Fernandes L, Lewis A, De’ath G, Slegers S, Barnett B, Kerrigan B, Breen D, Innes J, Oliver JS, Ward T, Lowe D (2002) The Representative Areas program for protecting biodiversity in the Great Barrier Reef world heritage area. Proceedings of 9th International Coral Reef Symposium 1:1–11

  • De’ath G, Fabricius KE (2000) Classification and regression trees: a powerful yet simple technique for the analysis of complex ecological data. Ecology 11:3178–3192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes L, Day J, Lewis A, Slegers S, Kerrigan B, Breen D, Cameron D, Jago B, Hall J, Lowe D, Innes J, Tanzer J, Chadwick V, Thompson L, Gorman K, Simmons M, Barnett B, Sampson K, De’ath G, Mapstone B, Marsh H, Possingham HP, Ball I, Ward T, Dobbs K, Aumend J, Slater D, Stapleton K (2005) Establishing representative No-take areas in the Great Barrier Reef: large-scale implementation of theory on marine protected areas. Conserv Biol 19:1733–1744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry GC, Milton DA, Wassenberg TJ (2001) The reproductive biology and diet of sea snake bycatch of prawn trawling in northern Australia: characteristics important for assessing the impacts on populations. Pac Conserv Biol 7:55–73

    Google Scholar 

  • GBRMPA (2003) Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Zoning Plan 2003. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia

  • GBRMPA (2004) Representative areas program. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia

  • Grimm V, Reise K, Strasser M (2003) Marine metapopulations: a useful concept? Helgol Mar Res 56:222–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Guinea M, Limpus CJ, Whiting SD (2004) Marine snakes. In: National Oceans Office; Description of key species groups in the Northern Planning Area. National Oceans Office, Hobart, pp 137–146

  • Hanski I (1989) Metapopulation dynamics: does it help to have more of the same? Tree 4:113–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanski I (1999) Metapopulation ecology. Oxford University, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanski I, Simberloff D (1997) The metapopulation approach, its history, conceptual domain and application to conservation. In: Hanski I, Gilpin ME (eds) metapopulation biology: ecology, genetics and evolution. Academic, San Diego, CA, USA, pp 5–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Heatwole H (1975) Sea snakes found on reefs in the Southern Coral Sea (Saumarez, Swains, Cato Island). In: Dunson WA (ed) The biology of sea snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore, pp 163–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Heatwole H (1978) Adaptations of marine snakes. Am Sci 66:594–604

    Google Scholar 

  • Heatwole H (1997) Marine snakes: are they a sustainable resource? Wildl Soc Bull 25:766–772

    Google Scholar 

  • Heatwole H (1999) Sea Snakes. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Heatwole H, Cogger H (1994) Sea snakes of Australia. In: Gopalakrishnakone P (ed) Sea snake toxinology. Singapore University Press, Singapore, pp 167–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Heithaus MR (2001) The biology of tiger sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier, in Shark Bay, Western Australia: sex ratio, size distribution, diet, and seasonal changes in catch rates. Environ Biol Fish 61:25–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hopley D, Davies PJ (1986) The evolution of the Great Barrier Reef. Oceanus 29:7–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Ineich I, Laboute P (2002) Les Serpents Marins de Nouvelle-Caledonia/Sea Snakes of new Caledonia. Institute de Recherche pour le Developpement, Paris

  • Jones GP, Planes S, Thorrold SR (2005) Coral reef fish larvae settle close to home. Curr Biol 15:1314–1318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinlan BP, Gaines SD (2003) Propagule dispersal in marine and terrestrial environments: a community perspective. Ecology 84:2007–2020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kritzer JP, Sale PF (2004) Metapopulation ecology in the sea: from Levins’ model to marine ecology and fisheries science. Fish Fish 5:131–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Kritzer JP, Sale PF (2006) The metapopulation ecology of coral reef fishes. In: Kritzer JP, Sale PF (eds) Marine metapopulations, Elsevier, San Diego, CA, USA, pp 31–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Levins R (1969) Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control. Bull Entomol Soc Am 15:237–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Levins R (1970) Extinction. In: Desternhaber M (ed) Some mathematical questions in biology. American Mathematical Society, Providence, USA, pp 77–107

  • Lukoschek V, Keogh JS (2006) Molecular phylogeny of sea snakes reveals a rapidly diverged adaptive radiation. Biol J Linn Soc 89:523–539

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch TP (2000) The behavioural ecology of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis. Ph.D. thesis, James Cook University, p 362

  • McClanahan TR (2002) The near future of coral reefs. Environ Conserv 29:460–483

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puotinen M (2004) Tropical cyclone impacts on coral reef communities: modelling the disturbance regime in the Great Barrier Reef region, 1969–2003. Ph.D. thesis, James Cook University, p 299

  • Punay EY (1975) Commercial sea snake fisheries in the Philippines. In: Dunson WA (ed) The biology of sea snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore, USA, pp 489–502

    Google Scholar 

  • Redfield JA, Holmes JC, Holmes RD (1978) Sea snakes of the eastern Gulf of Carpentaria. Aust J Mar Freshw Res 29:325–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sale PF, Hanski I, Kritzer JP (2006) The merging of metapopulation theory and marine ecology: establishing the historical context. In: Kritzer JP, Sale PF (eds) Marine metapopulations, Elsevier, San Diego, USA, pp 3–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Shetty S, Shine R (2002) Philopatry and homing behaviour of sea snakes (Laticauda colubrina from two adjacent islands in Fiji. Conserv Biol 16:1422–1426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shine R, Bonnet X, Elphick MJ, Barrott (2004) A novel foraging mode in snakes: browsing by the sea snake Emydocephalus annulatus (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae). Funct Ecol 18:16–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shine R, Cogger HG, Reed RR, Shetty S, Bonnet X, (2003a) Aquatic and terrestrial locomotor speeds of amphibious sea-snakes (Serpentes: Laticaudidae). J Zool Lond 259:261–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shine R, Shine T, Shine BG (2003b) Intraspecific habitat partitioning by the sea snake Emydocephalus annulatus (Serpentes, Hydrophiidae): the effects of sex, body size, and colour pattern. Biol J Linn Soc 80:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shine R, Shine T, Shine JM, Shine BG (2005) Synchrony in capture dates suggests cryptic social organization in sea snakes (Emydocephalus annulatus, Hydrophiidae). Aust Ecol 30:805–811

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpfendorfer CA, Goodread AB, McAuley RB (2001) Size, sex and geographic variation in the diet of the tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier, from western Australian waters. Environ Biol Fish 61:37–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smedbol RK, McPherson A, Hansen MM, Kenchington E (2002) Myths and moderation in marine ‘metapopulations’? Fish Fish 3:20–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Smedbol RK, Wroblewski JS (2002) Metapopulation theory and northern cod population structure: interdependence of subpopulations in recovery of a groundfish population. Fish Res 55:161–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stobutzki I, Blaber S, Brewer D, Fry GC, Heales D, Miller M, Milton DA, Salini JP, Van der Velde T, Wassenberg TJ, Jones P, Wang YG, Dredge M, Courtney T, Chilcott K, Eayres S (2000) Ecological sustainability of bycatch and biodiversity in prawn trawl fisheries. FRDC final report 96/257, CSIRO Marine Research, Cleveland, USA

  • Stokes T, Dobbs K (2001) Fauna and Flora of the Great Barrier Reef world heritage area. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia

  • Stuebing R, Voris HK (1990) Relative abundance of marine snakes on the West Coast of Sabah, Malaysia. J Hepatol 24:201–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweatman H (1997) Long-term monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef. Status report number 2, 1997. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia

  • Sweatman H, Bass A, Cheal A, Coleman G, Miller I, Ninio R, Osborne K, Oxley W, Ryan D, Thompson A, Tomkins P (1998) Long-term monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef. Status report number 3, 1998. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia

  • Sweatman H, Cheal A, Coleman G, Delean S, Fitzpatrick B, Miller I, Ninio R, Osborne K, Page C, Thompson A (2001) Long-term monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef. Status report number 5, 2001. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia

  • Tiebout HM, Cary JR (1987) Dynamic spatial ecology of the water snake, Nerodia sipedon. Copeia 1987:1–18

  • Venables WN, Ripley BD (1999) Modern applied statistics with S-PLUS. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York

  • Voris HK (1966) Fish eggs as the apparent sole food item for a genus of sea snake, Emydocephalus (Krefft). Ecology 47:152–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voris HK, Voris HH (1983) Feeding strategies in marine snakes: an analysis of evolutionary, morphological, behavioral and ecological relationships. Am Zool 23:411–425

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward TM (1996a) Sea snake bycatch of fish trawlers on the northern Australian continental shelf. Mar Freshw Res 47:625–630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward TM (1996b) Sea snake bycatch of prawn trawlers on the northern Australian continental shelf. Mar Freshw Res 47:631–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward TW (2000) Factors affecting the catch rates and relative abundance of sea snakes in the by-catch of trawlers targetting tiger and endeavour prawns on the northern Australian continental shelf. Mar Freshw Res 51:155–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wassenberg TJ, Salini JP, Heatwole H, Kerr JD (1994) Incidental capture of sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) by prawn trawlers in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. Aust J Mar Freshw Res 45:429–443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams D (1986) Temporal variation in the structure of reef slope fish communities (central Great Barrier Reef): short-term effects of Acanthaster planci infestation. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 28:157–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Zar J (1999) Biostatistical analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann KD, Shohet D (1994) Observations on newborn olive sea snakes, Aipysurus laevis, and resulting divisions of its life cycle. The Snake 26:51–56

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

These surveys were funded by: The Internal Research Funds of the University of New England, The Australian Research Grants Scheme, Marine Sciences and Technology, CRC Reef Research Centre and the Agricultural Research Service of North Carolina State University. VL was supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award and a CRC Reef Research Centre Postgraduate Scholarship, and supervised by Michelle Waycott, Scott Keogh and Helene Marsh. We thank Dr. Peter Doherty and the Australian Institute of Marine Science for generously providing in-kind ship-time on the R.V. Lady Basten for the 2001 surveys, and her crew for maximum assistance in the field. Max Allen, Ron Isbel, the Royal Australian Navy, the Queensland Lighthouse Service, Crawford Productions and the Belgian Expedition to the Great Barrier Reef are acknowledged for their assistance with transport and logistics on various trips. Peter Saenger, Ron and Valerie Taylor, Ben and Eva Cropp, Wally Muller, Tony Ayling, Emma Hutchinson, Sarah Lowe, Cathie Page, Rachael Pears and many generations of students from the University of New England assisted in the collection of data. We thank Courtney Long and the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on this manuscript and Rosemary Dunn for editorial assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia

    V. Lukoschek

  2. CRC Reef Research Centre, P.O. Box 772, Townsville, QLD, 4810, Australia

    V. Lukoschek & H. Marsh

  3. School of Earth and Environmental Science, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia

    V. Lukoschek, H. Heatwole, A. Grech & H. Marsh

  4. Department of Zoology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695-7617, USA

    H. Heatwole

  5. Department of Zoology, The University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351, Australia

    G. Burns

Authors
  1. V. Lukoschek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. Heatwole
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A. Grech
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. G. Burns
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. H. Marsh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to V. Lukoschek.

Additional information

Communicated by Ecology Editor P.J. Mumby.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

338_2006_192_MOESM1_ESM.doc

Table 1: Status of Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus on 90 reefs in the Pompey and Swain reefs complexes, southern Great Barrier Reef surveyed between 1967 and 2002, including current and prior zoning status. (DOC 100 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lukoschek, V., Heatwole, H., Grech, A. et al. Distribution of two species of sea snakes, Aipysurus laevis and Emydocephalus annulatus, in the southern Great Barrier Reef: metapopulation dynamics, marine protected areas and conservation. Coral Reefs 26, 291–307 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-006-0192-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-006-0192-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation