Abstract
Glomerular injury, occurring either as primary glomerular disease or as part of a systemic disease process, is usually a result of immune-mediated mechanisms. The morphologic reaction pattern has a diverse spectrum of appearance, ranging from normal by light microscopy in minimal change disease to crescentic forms of glomerulonephritis, with conspicuous disruption of the normal glomerular morphology. The mechanisms of glomerular immune deposit formation include trapping of circulating antigen–antibody complexes and the in situ formation of immune complexes within the glomerulus. While the majority of postinfectious immune-complex-mediated glomerulonephritides are believed to result from the deposition of circulating antigen–antibody complexes, preformed outside of the kidney and secondarily deposited in the kidney, the notion of forming in situ antigen–antibody complexes to either planted antigens or to integral structural components of the glomerulus, through “cross-reacting” autoimmune reactions, is gaining popularity in a variety of forms of glomerulonephritides. Patients with HIV infection may develop a spectrum of renal pathology, the glomerular manifestations of which include both antigen–antibody complex and nonimmune-complex-mediated pathogenetic mechanisms. Similarly, patients with Streptococcal infections, Hepatitis B virus, or Hepatitis C virus infection may develop a spectrum of glomerulonephritides, which are predominantly immune-complex-mediated. Therapy for glomerular diseases due to HIV, hepatitis B, or C virus infections remains a challenge.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Krogstad P (2003) Molecular biology of the human immunodeficiency virus: current and future targets for intervention. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 14(4):258–268
Apetrei C, Marx PA, Smith SM (2004) The evolution of HIV and its consequences. Infect Dis Clin N Am 18:369–394
Sreepada Rao TK (2001) Human immunodeficiency virus infection and renal failure. Infect Dis Clin N Am 15(3):833–850
Kimmel P (2000) The nephropathies of HIV infection: pathogenesis and treatment. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 9(2):117–122
Di Belgiojoso GB, Ferrario F, Landriani N (2002) Virus-related glomerular diseases: histological and clinical aspects. J Nephrol 15:469–479
Weiner NJ, Goodman JW, Kimmel PL (2003) The HIV-associated renal diseases: current insight into pathogenesis and treatment. Kidney Int 63:1618–1631
Cohen AH, Nast CC (1988) HIV-associated nephropathy: a unique combined glomerular, tubular and interstitial lesion. Mod Pathol 1:87–97
Ross MJ et al (2001) Microcyst formation and HIV-1 gene expression occur in multiple nephron segments in HIV-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 12:2645–2651
Lai AS, Lai KN (2006) Viral nephropathy. Nat Clin Prac Nephrol 2(5):254–262
Kopp JB et al (1992) Progressive glomerulosclerosis and enhanced renal accumulation of basement membrane components in mice transgenic for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:1577–1581
Bruggeman LA et al (1997) Nephropathy in human immunodeficiency virus-1 transgenic mice is due to renal transgene expression. J Clin Invest 100:84–92
Cohen AH et al (1989) Demonstration of human immunodeficiency virus in renal epithelium in HIV-associated nephropathy. Mod Pathol 2:125–128
Kimmel PL et al (1993) Viral DNA in microdissected renal biopsy tissue from HIV infected patients with nephrotic syndrome. Kidney Int 43:1347–1352
Bruggeman LA et al (2000) Renal epithelium is a previously unrecognised site of HIV-1 infection. J Am Soc Nephrol 11:2079–2087
Dickie P et al (1991) HIV-associated nephropathy in transgenic mice expressing HIV-1 genes. Virology 185:109–119
Tanji N et al (2006) Detection and localization of HIV-1 DNA in renal tissues by in-situ polymerase chain reaction. Histol Histopathol 21:393–401
Eitner F et al (2000) Chemokine receptor CCR5 and CXCR4 expression in HIV-associated kidney disease. Immunol Pathol 11(5):856–867
Eitner F et al (1998) Chemokine receptor (CCR5) expression in human kidneys and in the HIV infected macaque. Kidney Int 54:1945–1954
Conaldi PG et al (1998) HIV-1 kills renal tubular epithelial cells in vitro by triggering an apoptotic pathway involving caspase activation and Fas upregulation. J Clin Invest 102:2041–2049
Huber TB et al (2002) Expression of functional CCR and CXCR chemokine receptors in podocytes. J Immunol 168:6244–6252
Gerntholtz TE, Goetsch SJ, Katz I (2006) HIV-related nephropathy: a South African perspective. Kidney Int 69:1885–1891
Singhal PC, Sharma P, Loona R (1998) Enhanced proliferation, apoptosis, and matrix accumultaion by mesangial cells derived from HIV-1 transgenic mice. J Investig Med 46:297–302
Singhal PC, Sharma P, Reddy K (1997) HIV-1 gp160 envelope protein modulates proliferation and apoptosis in mesangial cells. Nephron 76:284–295
Conaldi PG, Botelli A, Wade-Evans A (2000) HIV-persistent infection and cytokine induction in mesangial cells: a potent mechanism for HIV-associated glomerulosclerosis. AIDS 14:2045–2047
Bodi I, Kimmel PL, Abraham AA (1997) Renal TGF-beta in HIV-associated kidney diseases. Kidney Int 51:1568–1577
Hiramatsu N et al (2007) Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade inhibits the development and progression of HIV-associated nephropathy in a mouse model. J Am Soc Nephrol 18:515–527
Border WA, Noble NA (1994) Transforming growth-factor-beta in tissue fibrosis. N Engl J Med 331:1286–1292
Wei A et al (2003) Long-term renal survival in HIV-associated nephropathy with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition. Kidney Int 64:1462–1471
Mongia A et al (2004) Protease inhibitors modulate apoptosis in mesangial cells derived from a mouse model of HIVAN. Kidney Int 65(3):860–870
Husain M et al (2002) HIV-Nef induces proliferation and anchorage-independent growth in podocytes. J Am Soc Nephrol 13(12):2997–3004
Lu T, Klotman PE (2007) Podocytes in HIV-associated nephropathy. Nephron Clin Pract 106(2):c67–c71
Schwartz EJ et al (2001) Human immunodeficiency virus-1 induces loss of contact inhibition in podocytes. J Am Soc Nephrol 12(8):1677–1684
Doublier S et al (2007) HIV-1 Tat reduces nephrin in human podocytes: a potential mechanism for enhanced glomerular permeability in HIV-associated nephropathy. AIDS 21(4):423–432
Barisoni L et al (1999) The dysregulated podocyte phenotype: a novel concept in the pathogenesis of collapsing idiopathic focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and HIV-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 10(1):51–61
Kaufman L et al (2004) Side-kick-1 is upregulated in glomeruli in HIV-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 15(7):1721–1730
Kaufman L et al (2007) The homophilic adhesion molecule sidekick-1 contributes to augmented podocyte aggregation in HIV-associated nephropathy. FASEB J 21(7):1367–1375
Zhong J et al (2005) Expression of HIV-1 genes in podocytes alone can lead to the full spectrum of HIV-1-associated nephropathy. Kidney Int 68(3):1048–1060
D'Agati V et al (1989) Pathology of HIV-associated nephropathy: a detailed morphological and comparative study. Kidney Int 35:1358–1370
Tang P et al (2005) Fibroblast growth factor-2 increases the renal recruitment and attachment of HIV-infected mononuclear cells to renal tubular epithelial cells. Pediatr Nephrol 20:1708–1716
Ross MJ et al (2006) HIV-1 infection initiates an inflammatory cascade in human renal tubular epithelial cells. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 42:1–11
Eustace JA et al (2000) Cohort study of the treatment of severe HIV-associated nephropathy with corticosteroids. Kidney Int 58:1253–1260
Kimmel PL, Mishkin GJ, Umana WO (1996) Captopril and renal survival in patients with human immunodeficiency virus nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 28:202–208
Burns GC et al (1997) Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in HIV-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 8(7):1140–1146
Gupta SK et al (2005) Guidelines for the management of chronic kidney disease in HIV-infected patients: recommendations of the HIV medicine association of the infectious diseases society of America. Clin Infect Dis 40:1559–1585
Ingulli E, Tejani A, Fikrig S (1991) Nephrotic syndrome associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in children. J Pediatr 119(5):710–716
Winston JA et al (2001) Nephropathy and establishment of a renal reservoir of HIV type 1 during Primary Infection. N Engl J Med 344(26):1979–1984
Szczech LA et al (2002) Protease inhibitors are associated with a slowed progression of HIV-related renal diseases. Clin Nephrol 57:336–341
Furtado MR et al (1999) Persistence of HIV-1 Transcription in Peripheral-Blood Mononuclear Cells in Pateints Receiving Potent Antiretroviral Treatment. N Engl J Med 340(21):1614–1622
Ross MJ, Klotman PE (2004) HIV-associated nephropathy. AIDS 18(8):1089–1099
Mqhayi M et al (2006) Causes for defaulting antiretrovirals in an urban clinic. in 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI 2006). Denver, USA
Cunningham MW (2000) Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 13(3):470–511
Fox EN (1974) M proteins of group A streptococci. Bacteriol Rev 38(1):57–86
Lancefield RC (1969) Current problems in studies of streptococci. J Gen Microbiol 55(2):161–163
Friedman J et al (1984) Immunological studies of post-streptococcal sequelae. Evidence for presence of streptococcal antigens in circulating immune complexes. J Clin Invest 74(3):1027–1034
Kefalides NA et al (1986) Antibodies to basement membrane collagen and to laminin are present in sera from patients with poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. J Exp Med 163(3):588–602
Lange CF (1969) Chemistry of cross-reactive fragments of streptococcal cell membrane and human glomerular basement membrane. Transplant Proc 1(4):959–963
Goroncy-Bermes P, Birkholz S (1988) Pathogenesis of glomerulonephritis following streptococcal infection. Immun Infekt 16(3):100–103
Lange K, Seligson G, Cronin W (1983) Evidence for the in situ origin of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis: glomerular localization of endostreptosin and the clinical significance of the subsequent antibody response. Clin Nephrol 19(1):3–10
Lange K et al (1976) A hitherto unknown streptococcal antigen and its probable relation to acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 5(5):207–215
Cronin WJ, Lange K (1990) Immunologic evidence for the in situ deposition of a cytoplasmic streptococcal antigen (endostreptosin) on the glomerular basement membrane in rats. Clin Nephrol 34(4):143–146
Poon-King R et al (1993) Identification of an extracellular plasmin binding protein from nephritogenic streptococci. J Exp Med 178(2):759–763
Cu GA et al (1998) Immunohistochemical and serological evidence for the role of streptococcal proteinase in acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int 54(3):819–826
Nordstrand A et al (1998) Streptokinase as a mediator of acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis in an experimental mouse model. Infect Immun 66(1):315–321
Nordstrand A, Norgren M, Holm SE (1996) An experimental model for acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis in mice. Apmis 104(11):805–816
Glurich I et al (1991) Identification of Streptococcus pyogenes proteins that bind to rabbit kidney in vitro and in vivo. Microb Pathog 10(3):209–220
Couser WG (1999) Glomerulonephritis. Lancet 353(9163):1509–1515
Han SH (2004) Extrahepatic manifestations of chronic hepatitis B. Clin Liver Dis 8(2):403–418
Combes B et al (1971) Glomerulonephritis with deposition of Australia antigen–antibody complexes in glomerular basement membrane. Lancet 2(7718):234–237
Levy M, Chen N (1991) Worldwide perspective of hepatitis B-associated glomerulonephritis in the 80s. Kidney Int Suppl 35:S24–S33
Okayasu T et al (1992) Inherited copper toxicity in Long-Evans cinnamon rats exhibiting spontaneous hepatitis: a model of Wilson’s disease. Pediatr Res 31(3):253–257
Takekoshi Y et al (1991) Immunopathogenetic mechanisms of hepatitis B virus-related glomerulopathy. Kidney Int Suppl 35:S34–S39
Ito H et al (1981) Hepatitis B e antigen-mediated membranous glomerulonephritis. Correlation of ultrastructural changes with HBeAg in the serum and glomeruli. Lab Invest 44(3):214–220
Lai KN, Lai FM, Tam JS (1989) Comparison of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies in determination of glomerular deposits of hepatitis B virus antigens in hepatitis B virus-associated glomerulonephritides. Am J Clin Pathol 92(2):159–165
Sasaki T, Hattori T, Mayumi M (1979) A large-scale survey on the prevalence of HBeAG and anti-HBe among asymptomatic carriers of HBV. Correlation with sex, age, HBsAG titre and s-GPT value. Vox Sang 37(4):216–221
Ohba S et al (1997) Differential localization of s and e antigens in hepatitis B virus-associated glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 48(1):44–47
Lai FM et al (1994) Primary glomerulonephritis with detectable glomerular hepatitis B virus antigens. Am J Surg Pathol 18(2):175–186
Venkataseshan VS et al (1990) Hepatitis-B-associated glomerulonephritis: pathology, pathogenesis, and clinical course. Medicine (Baltimore) 69(4):200–216
Johnson RJ, Couser WG (1990) Hepatitis B infection and renal disease: clinical, immunopathogenetic and therapeutic considerations. Kidney Int 37(2):663–676
Couser WG (1991) Mechanisms of glomerular injury: an overview. Semin Nephrol 11(3):254–258
Couser WG et al (1978) Experimental glomerulonephritis in the isolated perfused rat kidney. J Clin Invest 62(6):1275–1287
Van Damme BJ et al (1978) Experimental glomerulonephritis in the rat induced by antibodies directed against tubular antigens. V. Fixed glomerular antigens in the pathogenesis of heterologous immune complex glomerulonephritis. Lab Invest 38(4):502–510
Nangaku M, Couser WG (2005) Mechanisms of immune-deposit formation and the mediation of immune renal injury. Clin Exp Nephrol 9(3):183–191
Couser WG (1985) Mechanisms of glomerular injury in immune-complex disease. Kidney Int 28(3):569–583
Horl WH, Kerjaschki D (2000) Membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN). J Nephrol 13(4):291–316
Ronco P, Debiec H (2006) New insights into the pathogenesis of membranous glomerulonephritis. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 15(3):258–263
Czaja AJ (1997) Extrahepatic immunologic features of chronic viral hepatitis. Dig Dis 15(3):125–144
Nangaku M, Shankland SJ, Couser WG (2005) Cellular response to injury in membranous nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 16(5):1195–1204
Lai KN, Lo ST, Lai FM (1989) Immunohistochemical study of the membrane attack complex of complement and S-protein in idiopathic and secondary membranous nephropathy. Am J Pathol 135(3):469–476
Akano N et al (1989) Immunoelectron microscopic localization of membrane attack complex and hepatitis B e antigen in membranous nephropathy. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol 414(4):325–330
Topham PS et al (1999) Complement-mediated injury reversibly disrupts glomerular epithelial cell actin microfilaments and focal adhesions. Kidney Int 55(5):1763–1775
Couser WG (1998) Pathogenesis of glomerular damage in glomerulonephritis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 13(Suppl 1):10–15
Brandt J et al (1996) Role of the complement membrane attack complex (C5b-9) in mediating experimental mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int 49(2):335–343
Bhimma R, Coovadia HM, Adhikari M (1998) Hepatitis B virus-associated nephropathy in black South African children. Pediatr Nephrol 12(6):479–484
Lai KN, Lai FM (1991) Clinical features and the natural course of hepatitis B virus-related glomerulopathy in adults. Kidney Int Suppl 35:S40–S45
Lai KN et al (1991) Membranous nephropathy related to hepatitis B virus in adults. N Engl J Med 324(21):1457–1463
Lai KN et al (1990) The therapeutic dilemma of the usage of corticosteroid in patients with membranous nephropathy and persistent hepatitis B virus surface antigenaemia. Nephron 54(1):12–17
Sayarlioglu H et al (2005) Mycophenolate mofetil use in hepatitis B associated-membranous and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis induces viral replication. Ann Pharmacother 39(3):573
Bhimma R et al (2002) Treatment of hepatitis B virus-associated nephropathy in black children. Pediatr Nephrol 17(6):393–389
Chung DR et al (1997) Treatment of hepatitis B virus associated glomerulonephritis with recombinant human alpha interferon. Am J Nephrol 17(2):112–117
Lin CY (1995) Treatment of hepatitis B virus-associated membranous nephropathy with recombinant alpha-interferon. Kidney Int 47(1):225–230
Fabrizi F, Dixit V, Martin P (2006) Meta-analysis: anti-viral therapy of hepatitis B virus-associated glomerulonephritis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 24(5):781–788
Tang S et al (2005) Lamivudine in hepatitis B-associated membranous nephropathy. Kidney Int 68(4):1750–1758
Fabrizi F et al (2004) Lamivudine for the treatment of hepatitis B virus-related liver disease after renal transplantation: meta-analysis of clinical trials. Transplantation 77(6):859–864
Farrell GC, Teoh NC (2006) Management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a new era of disease control. Intern Med J 36(2):100–113
Trepo C, Guillevin L (2001) Polyarteritis nodosa and extrahepatic manifestations of HBV infection: the case against autoimmune intervention in pathogenesis. J Autoimmun 16(3):269–274
Wen YK, Chen ML (2006) Remission of hepatitis B virus-associated membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis in a cirrhotic patient after lamivudine therapy. Clin Nephrol 65(3):211–215
Alter MJ et al (1992) The natural history of community-acquired hepatitis C in the United States. The Sentinel Counties Chronic non-A, non-B Hepatitis Study Team. N Engl J Med 327(27):1899–905
Yamabe H et al (1995) Hepatitis C virus infection and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis in Japan. J Am Soc Nephrol 6(2):220–223
Philipneri M, Bastani B (2001) Kidney disease in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 3(1):79–83
Roccatello D et al (2007) Multicenter study on hepatitis C virus-related cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis. Am J Kidney Dis 49(1):69–82
D’Amico G (1998) Renal involvement in hepatitis C infection: cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int 54(2):650–671
McGuire BM et al (2006) Brief communication: glomerulonephritis in patients with hepatitis C cirrhosis undergoing liver transplantation. Ann Intern Med 144(10):735–741
Arase Y et al (1998) Glomerulonephritis in autopsy cases with hepatitis C virus infection. Intern Med 37(10):836–840
Agnello V (1997) The etiology and pathophysiology of mixed cryoglobulinemia secondary to hepatitis C virus infection. Springer Semin Immunopathol 19(1):111–129
Fabrizi F et al (2002) Kidney and liver involvement in cryoglobulinemia. Semin Nephrol 22(4):309–318
Sansonno D et al (1997) Hepatitis C virus-related proteins in kidney tissue from hepatitis C virus-infected patients with cryoglobulinemic membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis. Hepatology 25(5):1237–1244
Madala ND et al (2003) The pathogenesis of membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa is unrelated to hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Nephrol 60(2):69–73
Segerer S, Nelson PJ, Schlondorff D (2000) Chemokines, chemokine receptors, and renal disease: from basic science to pathophysiologic and therapeutic studies. J Am Soc Nephrol 11(1):152–176
Johnson RJ et al (1987) New mechanism for glomerular injury. Myeloperoxidase-hydrogen peroxide-halide system. J Clin Invest 79(5):1379–1387
Nikolic-Paterson DJ, Atkins RC (2001) The role of macrophages in glomerulonephritis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 16(Suppl 5):3–7
Wornle M et al (2006) Novel role of toll-like receptor 3 in hepatitis C-associated glomerulonephritis. Am J Pathol 168(2):370–385
Peterson MC (2007) Elevated circulating transforming growth factor beta-1 may explain poorer renal survival in type II diabetics with chronic hepatitis C. Med Sci Monit 13(5):RA50–RA54
Ronco P, Debiec H (2005) Molecular pathomechanisms of membranous nephropathy: from Heymann nephritis to alloimmunization. J Am Soc Nephrol 16(5):1205–1213
Davenport A et al (1994) Do mesangial immune complex deposits affect the renal prognosis in membranous glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 41(5):271–276
Xie Y et al (2005) Predictive factors for sustained response to interferon treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a randomized, open, and multi-center controlled trial. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 4(2):213–219
Xu Zea (1998) Single dose safety (tolerability and pharmocokinetic/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) following administration of ascending subcutanoeous doses of pegylated-interferon (PEG-INF) and interferon alpha-2a) to healthy subjects [abstract]. Hepatology 28:702A
Manns MP et al (2001) Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial. Lancet 358(9286):958–965
Hadziyannis SJ et al (2004) Peginterferon-alpha2a and ribavirin combination therapy in chronic hepatitis C: a randomized study of treatment duration and ribavirin dose. Ann Intern Med 140(5):346–355
Sabry AA et al (2002) Effect of combination therapy (ribavirin and interferon) in HCV-related glomerulopathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17(11):1924–1930
Misiani R et al (1994) Interferon alfa-2a therapy in cryoglobulinemia associated with hepatitis C virus. N Engl J Med 330(11):751–756
Johnson RJ et al (1994) Hepatitis C virus-associated glomerulonephritis. Effect of alpha-interferon therapy. Kidney Int 46(6):1700–1704
Calleja JL et al (1999) Sustained response to interferon-alpha or to interferon-alpha plus ribavirin in hepatitis C virus-associated symptomatic mixed cryoglobulinaemia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 13(9):1179–1186
Alric L et al (2004) Influence of antiviral therapy in hepatitis C virus-associated cryoglobulinemic MPGN. Am J Kidney Dis 43(4):617–623
Ohta S et al (1999) Exacerbation of glomerulonephritis in subjects with chronic hepatitis C virus infection after interferon therapy. Am J Kidney Dis 33(6):1040–1048
Madore F, Lazarus JM, Brady HR (1996) Therapeutic plasma exchange in renal diseases. J Am Soc Nephrol 7(3):367–386
Quartuccio L et al (2006) Rituximab treatment for glomerulonephritis in HCV-associated mixed cryoglobulinaemia: efficacy and safety in the absence of steroids. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45(7):842–846
Kamar N, Rostaing L, Alric L (2006) Treatment of hepatitis C-virus-related glomerulonephritis. Kidney Int 69(3):436–439
Garini G et al (2005) Hepatitis C virus-related cryoglobulinemia and glomerulonephritis: pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies. Ann Ital Med Int 20(2):71–80
Nutley N (2004) Copegus (ribavirin). Roche [product information]. Available at http://www.hivandhepatitis.com/hep_c/images/pi.pdf.
Gentile I et al (2005) Hemolytic anemia during pegylated IFN-alpha2b plus ribavirin treatment for chronic hepatitis C: ribavirin is not always the culprit. J Interferon Cytokine Res 25(5):283–285
Afdhal NH et al (2004) Epoetin alfa maintains ribavirin dose in HCV-infected patients: a prospective, double-blind, randomized controlled study. Gastroenterology 126(5):1302–1311
Gish RG (2006) Treating HCV with ribavirin analogues and ribavirin-like molecules. J Antimicrob Chemother 57(1):8–13
Russo MW et al (2003) Interferon monotherapy for dialysis patients with chronic hepatitis C: an analysis of the literature on efficacy and safety. Am J Gastroenterol 98(7):1610–1615
Pereira BJ, Levey AS (1997) Hepatitis C virus infection in dialysis and renal transplantation. Kidney Int 51(4):981–999
Carbognin SJ et al (2006) Acute renal allograft rejection following pegylated IFN-alpha treatment for chronic HCV in a repeat allograft recipient on hemodialysis: a case report. Am J Transplant 6(7):1746–1751
Ozgur O et al (1995) Recombinant alpha-interferon in renal allograft recipients with chronic hepatitis C. Nephrol Dial Transplant 10(11):2104–2106
Shu KH et al (2004) Ultralow-dose alpha-interferon plus ribavirin for the treatment of active hepatitis C in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 77(12):1894–1896
Cruzado JM et al (2003) Pretransplant interferon prevents hepatitis C virus-associated glomerulonephritis in renal allografts by HCV-RNA clearance. Am J Transplant 3(3):357–360
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Naicker, S., Fabian, J., Naidoo, S. et al. Infection and glomerulonephritis. Semin Immunopathol 29, 397–414 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-007-0088-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-007-0088-x