Abstract
A major constraint on the use of treated wastewater (TWW) in microirrigation systems is the potential for fouling. This research aimed to assess the occurrence of fouling in drip irrigation systems applying TWW and determine the quantity and chemical characteristics of the fouling. A field survey was performed to determine the incidence of chemical and biological fouling in irrigation systems and its influence on system performance. Dripper flow rate, total and volatile solids, chemical composition, and diffuse reflection infrared Fourier transform (DRIFT) spectra of the fouling material were determined. Fouling was found in all of the drip irrigation systems sampled under a variety of conditions. The fouling contained a high percentage of organic matter (OM), except for two instances where the material was mainly inorganic. Identification of the functional groups using DRIFT showed that the OM found is essentially of aliphatic and amide origin. Comparing the spectra obtained from the various sites revealed considerable similarity in the material properties. This suggests a common mechanism in all irrigation systems tested, but a different accumulation rate. A high correlation was found between total phosphorus concentration, the sum of Ca and Mg concentrations and the TWW pH, and the content of total and organic carbon in the fouling. In addition, the correlation between equipment age and the amount of accumulated total solids was high for systems containing high quantities of fouling. The concentration of volatile solids was highly correlated with the age of the irrigation system.
References
Adin A, Sacks M (1991) Dripper-clogging factors in wastewater irrigation. J Irrig Drain Eng 117:813–826
Capra A, Scicolone B (1998) Water quality and distribution uniformity in drip/trickle irrigation systems. J Agric Eng Res 70:355–365
Capra A, Scicolone B (2004) Emitter and filter tests for wastewater reuse by drip irrigation. Agric Water Manag 68:135–149
Capra A, Scicolone B (2005) Assessing dripper clogging and filtering performance using municipal wastewater. Irrig Drain 54:S71–S79
Capra A, Scicolone B (2007) Recycling of poor quality urban wastewater by drip irrigation systems. J Clean Prod 15:1529–1534
Carriére A, Gauthier V, Desjardins R, Barbeau B (2005) Evaluation of loose deposites in distribution systems through unidirectional flushing. Am Water Works Assoc J 8:82–92
Chefetz B, Tarchitzky J, Benny N, Hatcher P, Bortiatynski J, Chen Y (1998) Characterization and properties of humic substances originating from an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant. In: Davies G, Gabbour E (eds) Humic substances: structure properties and uses. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, pp 69–78
Davey ME, O’Toole GA (2000) Microbial biofilms: from ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 64:847–867
de Beer D, Srinivasan R, Stewart PS (1994) Direct measurement of chlorine penetration in biofilms during disinfection. Appl Environ Microbiol 60:4339–4344
Denkhaus E, Mesen S, Telgheder U, Wingebder J (2007) Chemical and physical methods for characterization of biofilms. Microchim Acta 158:1–27
Dosoretz C, Tarchitzky J, Katz I, Kenig E, Chen Y (2011) Development and effects of a fouling layer in distribution and irrigation systems applying treated wastewater effluents. In: Levy G, Fine P, Bar-Tal A (eds) Use of treated sewage water in agriculture: impacts on crops and soil environment. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp 328–350
Duran-Ros M, Puig-Bargués J, Arbat G, Ramírez de Cartagena F (2009) Effect of filter, emitter and location on clogging when using effluents. Agric Water Manag 96:67–79
Echeverría F, Castaño JG, Arroyave C, Pañuela G (2009) Characterization of deposits in a water distribution system. Ingeniare. Revista Chilena de Ingeniería 17:275–281
FAO (2012) Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations. AQUASTAT. https://www.fao.org/nr/water/main/index.stm
Flemming HC (2002) Biofouling in water systems—cases, causes and countermeasures. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 59:629–640
Gauthier V, Gerard B, Portal JM, Block JC, Gatel D (1999) Organic matter as loose deposits in a drinking water distribution system. Water Res 33:1014–1026
ISO (International Standard Organization) (2004) Agricultural irrigation equipment—emitters and emitting pipes—specification and test methods. ISO 9261:2004(E)
Ivnitsky H, Katz I, Minz D, Shimoni E, Chen Y, Tarchitzky J, Semiat R, Dosoretz CG (2005) Characterization of membrane biofouling in nanofiltration processes of wastewater treatment. Desalination 185:255–268
Ivnitsky H, Katz I, Minz D, Volvovic G, Shimoni E, Kesselman E, Semiat R, Dosoretz CG (2007) Bacterial community composition and structure of biofilms developing on nanofiltration membranes applied to wastewater treatment. Water Res 41:3924–3935
Li GB, Li YK, Xu TW, Liu YZ, Jin H, Yang PL, Yan DZ, Ren SM, Tian ZF (2011) Effects of average velocity on the growth and surface topography of biofilms attached to the reclaimed wastewater drip irrigation system laterals. Irrig Sci. doi:10.1007/s00271-011-0266-4
Nakayama FS, Bucks DA (1991) Water quality in drip/trickle irrigation. Irrig Sci 12:187–192
Ravina I, Paz E, Sofer Z, Marcu A, Shisha A, Sagi G (1992) Control of emitter clogging in drip irrigation with reclaimed wastewater. Irrig Sci 13:129–139
Ravina I, Paz E, Sofer Z, Marcu A, Shisha A, Sagi G, Yechialy Z, Lev Y (1997) Control of clogging in drip irrigation with store treated municipal sewage effluent. Agric Water Manag 33:127–137
Tarchitzky J, B0ar-Hai M, Loewengart-Acicegi A, Sokolovsky E, Peres M, Zilverman A, Eizenkot A, Menashe Y, Kenig E, Gal Y, Eisenshdtat Y, Ronen Y, Reizer B, Yaskil E, Buberman O (2006) National Wastewater Effluent Irrigation Survey 2003–2005. Ministry of Agriculture Extension Service Israel (in Hebrew with English abstract)
Wingender J, Flemming HC (2004) Contamination potential of drinking water distribution network biofilms. Water Sci Technol 49:277–286
Yan D, Bai Z, Rowan M, Gu L, Ren S, Yang P (2009) Bofilm structure and its influence on clogging in drip irrigation emitters distributing reclaimed water. J Environ Sci 21:834–841
Zacheus OM, Lethola MJ, Korhonen LK, Martikainen PJ (2001) Soft deposits the key site for microbial growth in drinking water distribution networks. Water Res 35:1757–1765
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Chief Scientist of the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, Germany) project: “Irrigation with municipal effluents: effects on physical soil properties, contaminant transport, soil carbon dynamics, soil microbial activity and crop quality”.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by K. Stone.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tarchitzky, J., Rimon, A., Kenig, E. et al. Biological and chemical fouling in drip irrigation systems utilizing treated wastewater. Irrig Sci 31, 1277–1288 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-013-0406-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-013-0406-0