Abstract
Opposition to mines endures even in countries with relatively strong environmental assessment processes and regulations. Why proposed mines fail to obtain a social license to operate is analyzed by developing a framework comprised of three concepts—process legitimacy, distributional outcomes, and values compatibility—drawing from the social license to operate, interactive governance, and environmental justice literatures. The framework is applied to understand opposition from local Indigenous people to two mine projects, one in Sweden and the other in British Columbia, Canada. Evidence from interviews with Sami legal experts and Reindeer Herding Community representatives and an advisor with the Tŝilhqot’in National Government, as well as from secondary sources is used to analyze the contestation. Despite the proposed mines being situated in different governance contexts, the reasons for the opposition are markedly similar - environmental assessment processes are illegitimate, distributional outcomes unfair, and values incompatible. The comparative empirical analysis leads to refining the framework as a scaffold with values compatibility as the foundational plank, rather than three independent planks contributing to a social license to operate. The analysis offers insights into company commitments to Indigenous engagement, enhancements to process legitimacy, and evolving and paradigmatic shifts in governance processes, as articulated by Indigenous peoples and international governance mechanisms such as the 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.Notes
Tjiellde means Sami RHC in the Lule Sami language.
The TNG represents Tŝilhqot’in communities of Tl’etinqox, ʔEsdilagh, Yuneŝit’in, Tŝideldel, Tl’esqox and Xeni Gwet’in (Tŝilhqot’in National Government. Communities). Population data are from a British Columbia, Government of. Consulting with First Nations. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/natural-resource-stewardship/consulting-with-firstnations/first-nationsnegotiations/first-nations-a-z-listing/tsilhqot-in-nationalgovernment
This definition points to the need to modify the binary distinction made between the “natural” and “social” “systems-to-be-governed” made in the interactive governance literature. Indigenous approaches do not necessarily view the two “systems” as independent in this way.
These Acts were replaced, respectively, by the B.C. Environmental Assessment Act, 2018 and the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2012 (and in turn by the Impact Assessment Act, 2019).
For categories of evaluation, see B.C. EAO. (2018) and Canada, Government of. Canadian Environmental Assessment Act: An Overview. https://www.canada.ca/en/impact-assessment-agency/services/policy-guidance/canadian-environmental-assessment-act-overview.html#public For a schematic overview of the federal environmental process, see Mehdic et al. (2020) and for the B.C. process, see Haddock (2010).
See British Columbia, Government of. Frequently asked questions about environmental assessments. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/natural-resource-stewardship/environmental-assessments/frequently-asked-questions The new B.C. Environmental Assessment Act, 2018 became law in 2019.
The B.C. EAO maintains, however, “that the provincial EA process provides meaningful opportunities for First Nations’ engagement throughout the process” and “that any impacts on established and admitted rights are justifiable” (B.C. EAO 2009a, 132 and 135).
Mehdic et al. (2020) attribute the different conclusions to subjectivity of judgments, legislation/policy, and information.
See Dasiqox Tribal Park. Our Story.https://dasiqox.org/about-us/ourstory/
The process for prior consultation, however, needs to be carefully determined so as to be beneficial (see Le Billon and Middeldorp (2021) for analysis).
References
Allard C, Curran D (2021) Indigenous influence and engagement in mining permitting in British Columbia, Canada: lessons for Sweden and Norway? Environ Manage Online. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01536-0
Bäckström L (2015) Svensk Gruvrätt: En Rättsvetenskaplig Studie Rörande Förutsättningarna För Utvinning Av Mineral. Doctoral Dissertation, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå 269 p.
Bailey I, Hunter J (2011) Christy Clark presses Harper over rejected mine proposal Globe and Mail March 15, Toronto, ON, Canada
Baker DC, McLelland JN (2003) Evaluating the effectiveness of British Columbia’s environmental assessment process for first nations’ participation in mining development. Environ Impact Assess Rev 23(5):581–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-9255(03)00093-3
Bauer K (2016) Land versus territory: Evaluating Indigenous land policy for the Mapuche in Chile. J Agrarian Change 16(4):627–645. https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12103
Beland Lindahl K, Johansson A, Zachrisson A, Viklund R (2018) Competing pathways to sustainability? Exploring conflicts over mine establishments in the Swedish mountain region. J Environ Manag 218:402–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.04.063
Beland Lindahl K, Zachrisson A, Viklund, R, Matti S, Fjellborg D, Johansson A, Elenius L (2016) Konflikter Om Gruvetablering. Lokalsamhällets Aktörer och Vägar till Hållbarhet. Rapport Nr 2/2016. Länsstyrelsen i Norrbotten
Beowulf (2021a) Kallak – Iron Ore. https://beowulfmining.com/projects/sweden/kallak/, (Accessed 2021-07-07)
Beowulf (2021b) Investors. https://beowulfmining.com/investors, (Accessed 202107-07)
Beowulf (2021c) Beowulf Mining plc Kallak 16 October 2020, ProHearings, Stockholm. https://beowulfmining.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/20201015-Beowulf-Mining-ProHearings-Presentation.pdf, (Accessed 2021-07-07)
Birchwater S (2008) Hundreds attend Prosperity open houses. The Tribune. Williams Lake, B.C.
Booth AL, Skelton NW (2011) Improving First Nations’ participation in environmental assessment processes: recommendations from the field. Impact Assess Proj Appraisal 29(1):49–58. https://doi.org/10.3152/146155111X12913679730395
Boutilier RG (2020) From metaphor to political spin: Understanding criticisms of the social licence. Extractive Industries Soc 8(2):100743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.05.022
Bowles P, MacPhail F, Tetreault D (2019) Social licence versus procedural justice: Competing narratives of (il)legitimacy at the San Xavier mine, Mexico. Resource Policy 61(C):157–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.02.005
British Columbia, Government of. Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources (2019) Tŝilhqot’in, Taseko, Province work to resolve mine dispute. Information Bulletin December 19. https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2019EMPR0129-002452
British Columbia, Government of. Environmental Assessment Office (B.C. EAO) (2009a) Prosperity Gold-Copper Project Assessment Report https://projects.eao.gov.bc.ca/api/public/document/588693e9eed3c0016f855219/download/Prosperity%20Gold-Copper%20Project%20Assessment%20Report.pdf
British Columbia, Government of. Environmental Assessment Office (B.C. EAO) (2009b) Recommendations of the Executive Director of the Environmental Assessment Office. Taseko Mines Application for an Environmental Assessment Certificate. https://projects.eao.gov.bc.ca/api/document/588693e0eed3c0016f855208/fetch
British Columbia, Government of. Environmental Assessment Office (B.C. EAO) (2009c) Environmental Assessment Certificate #M09-02 https://projects.eao.gov.bc.ca/api/public/document/588693e9eed3c0016f85521a/download/Environmental%20Assessment%20Certificate%20M09-02%20for%20the%20Prosperity%20Gold-Copper%20Project%20issued%20January%2014%2C%202010.pdf
British Columbia, Government of. Environmental Assessment Office (2018) User Guide. An overview of environmental assessment in British Columbia. Victoria, B.C., Canada
Canada, Government of Canada (2011) Government of Canada Response to the Report of the Federal Review Panel for the Taseko Mines Limited’s Prosperity Gold-Copper Mine Project in British Columbia. https://iaac-aeic.gc.ca/050/evaluations/document/46183?culture=en-CA
Canada, Government of Canada (2014) New Prosperity Gold-Copper Mine Project: Environmental Assessment Decision. https://www.canada.ca/en/news/archive/2014/02/new-prosperity-gold-copper-mine-project-environmental-assessment-decision.html
Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency (CEAA) (2010) Report of the Federal Review Panel. Prosperity Gold-Copper Mine Project. July 2 CEAA Reference No. 09-05-44811 https://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/documents/46911/46911E.pdf
Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency (CEAA) (2013) Report of the Federal Review Panel. New Prosperity Gold-Copper Mine project. October 31, 2013 CEAA Reference No. 63928. https://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/documents/p63928/95631E.pdf
Carroll C (2014) Native enclosures: Tribal national parks and the progressive politics of environmental stewardship in Indian Country. Geoforum 53:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.02.003
Chuenpagdee R, Jentoft S (2013) Assessing governability—What’s next. In: Bavinck M, Chuenpagdee R, Jentoft S, Kooiman J (eds) Governability of fisheries and aquaculture: Theory and applications. Springer, Dordrecht pp. 335–34
Conde M, Le Billion P (2017) Why do some communities resist mining projects while others do not? Extractive Industries Soc 4(3):681–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2017.04.009
Cooney J (2017) Reflections on the 20th anniversary of the term ‘social licence’. J Energy Nat Resour Law 35(2):197–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646811.2016.1269472
County Administration Board (2014) Samråd enligt 8 kap. 18§ minerallagen (1991:45), Ert dnr. BS 22-559-2013. 2014-10-01, CAB dnr. 543-5306-14
County Administration Board (2017) Yttrande över ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för Kallak K nr. 1 inom Jokkmokks kommun, 2017-01-31, CAB dnr. 543-12295-2016
Daniels SE, Walker GB (2001) Working through environmental conflict: the collaborative learning approach. Westport, Conn. Praeger
Ernst & Young (2020) License to operate remains top mining risk, with high-impact risks a close second. Press release September 30. https://www.ey.com/en_gl/news/2020/09/license-to-operate-remains-top-mining-risk-with-high-impact-risks-a-close-second
Feist A, Plummer R, Baird J (2020) The inner-workings of collaboration in environmental management and governance: A systematic mapping review. Environ Manag 66:801–815
Finley-Brook M, Holloman E (2016) Empowering energy justice. Int J Environ Res Public Health 13(9):926–945. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13090926
Geological Survey of Sweden (GSS) (2013) Vägledning för prövning av gruvverksamhet, GSS dnr 04-2288/2012
Gray B (2004) Strong opposition: frame-based resistance to collaboration Community. Appl Soc Psychol 14(3):166–176. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.773
Gray B, Robert A (2021) BC proposes extensive changes in Draft Action Plan to implement UNDRIP McCarthy Tetrault https://www.mccarthy.ca/en/insights/blogs/canadian-era-perspectives/bc-proposes-extensive-changes-draft-action-plan-implement-undrip
Haddock M (2010) Environmental Assessment in British Columbia. Environmental Law Centre, University of Victoria. Victoria, B.C., Canada http://www.elc.uvic.ca/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/ELC_EA-IN-BC_Nov2010.pdf
Haddock M (2011) Comparison of the British Columbia and Federal Environmental Assessments for the Prosperity Mine. Northwest Environmental Institute http://northwestinstitute.ca/images/uploads/NWI_EAreport_July2011.pdf
Hernández D (2015) Sacrifice along the energy continuum: A call for energy justice. Environ Justice 8(4):151–156. https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2015.0015
Hifab (2013) Miljökonsekvensbeskrivning—till ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för fyndigheten Kallak Norra, Hifab AB
Hilson G, Laing T (2017) Gold mining, indigenous land claims and conflict in Guyana’s hinterland. J Rural Stud 50:172–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.01.004
Hitchcock E (2009) Taseko confident in Prosperity approval. The Williams Lake Tribune, Williams Lake, B.C., Canada
Hoogeveen D (2015) Sub-surface property, free-entry mineral staking and settler colonialism in Canada. Antipode 47(1):1121–138.
Hoogeveen D (2016) Fish-hood: Environmental assessment, critical Indigenous studies, and posthumanism at Fish lake (Teztan Biny). Tsilhqot’ territory Environ Plan D: Soc Space 34(2):355–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263775815615123
Horowitz LS (2009) Environmental violence and crises of legitimacy in New Caledonia. Polit Geogr 28(4):248–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2009.07.001
Hunter J (2013) Ottawa is in a box over New Prosperity mine Globe and Mail, Toronto, ON, Canada
Jåhkågaska tjiellde and Sirges (2014) Yttrande avseende Jokkmokk Iron Mines ABs kompletterande ansökan om bearbetningskonscession Dnr BS 22-559-2013. 2014-09-10, Dnr. 543-6255-13
Jåhkågaska tjiellde and Sirges (2015) Ärende N2015/1677/FÖF, Yttrande angående LS i NBs yttrande angående samhällekonomiska överväganden i rubricerat ärende. 2015-09-14, Ref. nr: 1022943.9.0032
Jåhkågaska tjiellde and Sirges (2016) Ärende N2015/1677/FÖF–Ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för området Kallak Nr 1 i Jokkmokks kommun. 2016-04-15
Jåhkågaska tjiellde and Sirges (2018) Yttrande i anledning av ansökan om bearbetningskoncession, Kallak nr. 1 i Jokkmokks kommun, ärende N2017-04553-FÖF. 2018-02-02
Jentoft S, Chuenpagdee R (2015) Assessing governability of small-scale fisheries. In: Jentoft S, Chuenpagdee R (eds) Interactive governance for small-scale fisheries, Springer, pp 17–35.
JIMAB (2013) Ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för fyndigheten Kallak Norra belägen ca 2 km SO om byn Björkholmen, Jokkmokks kommun, Norrbottens län, 2013-04-25
Kivinen S, Kotilainen J, Kumpula T (2020) Mining conflicts in the European Union: Environmental and political perspectives. Fennia 198(1–2):163–179. https://doi.org/10.11143/fennia.87223
Land and Environmental Court (2013) Protokoll, mål nr F 3047-12, 2013-02-04. Mineral Inspectorate 2013-02-05, dnr 215-1557-2012
Lavoie J (2020) Taseko’s loss in Supreme Court may not be the end of embattled New Prosperity mine, Tsilhqot’in warn. The Narwhal https://thenarwhal.ca/tasekos-loss-supreme-court-embattled-new-prosperity-mine-tsilhqotin-warn/
Le Billon P, Middeldorp N (2021) Empowerment or imposition? Extractive violence, Indigenous Peoples, and the paradox of prior consultation. In: Shapiro J, McNeish JA (eds) Our extractive age. Expressions of violence and resistance. Routledge, London, p 71–93
Linnitt C (2020) A timeline from birth to death of Taseko’s embattled new Prosperity mine in B.C. The Narwhal https://thenarwhal.ca/timeline-birth-to-death-tasekos-embattled-new-prosperity-mine-bc/
Mehdic A, Gunton T, Rutherford M (2020) Assessing the role of subjective judgment and science in environmental impact assessment: Implications and options for reform. J Environ Plan Manag 63(10):1771–1790. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2019.1688650
Menegaki M, Kaliampakos D (2014) Dealing with NIMBYism in Mining Operations. In: Drebenstedt C, Singhal R (eds) Mine planning and equipment selection. Springer, Cham, pp 1437–1446. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02678-7_138
Mineral Inspectorate (2011) Fråga om överträdelse av bestämmelserna i minerallagen vid undersökningsarbeten i Jokkmokks kommun, Norrbottens län, 2011-12-16, dnr. BS 40-1658-11
Mineral Inspectorate (2013) Arbetsplan för provbrytning och undersökningsarbeten inom undersökningstillståndet Kallak nr 1, Jokkmokks kommun, Norrbottens län, 2013-03-22, dnr. BS 211-467-2013
Mineral Inspectorate (2015) Yttrande Ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för området Kallak K nr 1 i Jokkmokks kommun, Norrbottens län, 2015-02-13, dnr. BS 22-559-2013
Morrison J (2014) The social license. How to keep your organization legitimate. Palgrave MacMillan, Hampshire, UK and New York, USA
Olynyk J, Horkoff M (2021) The B.C. Government’s draft action plan to implement UNDRIP. Lawson Lundell, Calgary, AB. https://www.lawsonlundell.com/project-law-blog/the-b-c-governments-draft-action-plan
Owen JR, Kemp D (2013) Social licence and mining: A critical perspective. Resour Policy 38(1):29–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.06.016
Owen JR, Kemp D (2017) Extractive relations: Countervailing power and the global mining industry. Routledge, London
Peluso NL, Watts M (2001) Violent environments. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY
Poelzer G, Beland Lindahl K, Segerstedt E, Abrahamson L, Karlsonn M (2020) Licensing acceptance in a mineral-rich welfare state: Critical reflections on the social licence to operate in Sweden. extractive industries Soc 7(3):1096–1107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.05.008
Prno J, Slocombe DS (2012) Exploring the origins of ‘social license to operate’ in the mining sector: Perspectives from governance and sustainability theories. Resour Policy 37(3):346–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2012.04.002
Prop 2016/17:200 (2017) Miljöbedömningar. Government Bill. Sweden, Government of. Ministry of the Environment and Energy
Raitio K, Allard C, Lawrence R (2020) Mineral extraction in Swedish Sápmi: The regulatory gap between Sami rights and Sweden’s mining permitting practices. Land Use Policy 99:105001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105001
Sami Parliament (2014) Sametingets syn på gruvor och mineraler i Sapmi. Sametinget. Available at: https://www.sametinget.se/gruvpolicy (Accessed June 20, 2020)
Sami Parliament (2015) Yttrande I ärende N2015/1677/FÖF samråd enligt 8 kap. Minerallagen (1991:45) om bearbetningskoncession för Kallak nr 1, Jokkmokks kommun, Dnr. 2015/01677/FÖF. 2015-09-11
Sami Parliament (2017) Yttrande avseende ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för Kallak nr. 1, Jokkmokks kommun, Dnr. 543-5661-2017. 2017-06-11. 2017-06-11, Dnr. 5.2.1-2016-1035
Simpson S (2008) Chilcotin mine backers promise to replace lake. The Vancouver Sun, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Sirges (2018) Yttrande avseende ärende N2017/04553/FÖF–Ansökan om bearbetningskoncession för området Kallak nr 1, Jokkmokks kommun. 2018-02-05
Sovacool BK, Dworkin MH (2015) Energy justice: Conceptual insights and practical applications. Appl Energy 142:435–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.002
SSR (2012) SSRs Positionsdokument inför framtagandet av en ny samepolitik [White Paper by the National Union of the Swedish Sami on a New Sami Affairs Regime], Adopted by the National Union of the Swedish Sami in 2012]. https://www.sapmi.se/landsmotet/lm-12/resolutioner-12/ (Accessed June 20, 2020)
Thomson I, Boutilier RG (2011) Social license to operate. In: Darling P (ed) SME mining engineering handbook. Society of Mining Metallurgy and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado, p 1779–1796
Tŝilhqot’in Nation (2012) Submission to Canada’s 19th and 20th Periodic Reports: Shadow Report by the Tsilhqot’in Nation on the denial of Indigenous peoples’ rights in Canada with a focus on the Extractive Sector Operating within Canada. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 80th Session 13 Februar–9 March 2012 United Nations, Geneva
Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia, 2007 BCSC 1700
Tsilhqot’in Nation v. British Columbia, 2014 SCC 44
Tŝilhqot’in National Government (2009) Letter to the Federal Review Panel. CEAA Registry, Number 464. https://www.ceaa-acee.gc.ca/050/evaluations/proj/44811/contributions/id/27789
Tsilhqot’in National Government (2013) Tsilhqot’in National Government Final Submission. https://iaac-aeic.gc.ca/050/documents/p63928/93669E.pdf
Tŝilhqot’in National Government (2014) Draft Mining Policy Document obtained from the TNG, Williams Lake, BC, Canada
Wawryk A (2014) Conservation and access to land for mining in protected areas: The conflict over mining in South Australia’s Arkaroola Wilderness Sanctuary. J Environ Law 26(2):291–317. https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/equ008
William v. British Columbia, 2012 BCCA 285.
Zachrisson A, Beland Lindahl K (2019) Political opportunity and mobilization: The evolution of a Swedish mining-sceptical movement. Resour Policy 64:101477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101477
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to representatives of the Sami RHCs Jåhkågaska tjiellde and Tuorpon and SSR for sharing their knowledge about the Swedish case study and to J.P. LaPlante, Advisor to the Tŝilhqot’in National Government for contributing his knowledge and guidance on the B.C. case study. We also greatly appreciate the comments of two anonymous reviewers which have strengthened the paper. The authors alone are responsible for correctness of the statements provided in the article.
Funding
The authors appreciate financial assistance for this research from the the Vinnova project “What’s in a Social License to Mine? Indigenous, Industry and Government Best Practices for Social Innovation” (project No. 2017-02226), which is part of the national Swedish Strategic Innovation Program STRIM, a collaborative effort by Vinnova, Formas and the Swedish Energy Agency.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethics approval
This research has been conducted in accordance with protocols of Luleå University of Technology and University of Northern British (REB Approval No. E2018.1109.103.00).
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
MacPhail, F., Lindahl, K.B. & Bowles, P. Why do Mines Fail to Obtain a Social License to Operate?: Insights from the Proposed Kallak Iron Mine (Sweden) and the Prosperity/New Prosperity Gold–Copper Mine (Canada). Environmental Management 72, 19–36 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01587-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01587-3