Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Coastal Tourism and Its Influence on Wastewater Nitrogen Loading: A Barrier Island Case Study

  • Published:
Environmental Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Package treatment plants (PTPs) are facilities designed to treat onsite wastewater for small communities, commercial, and residential developments. PTPs are being utilized in a growing number of coastal communities. This study estimated the effects of coastal tourism on onsite wastewater nitrogen (N) inputs to a barrier island surficial aquifer (Bogue Banks, NC). The N-removal effectiveness was assessed for seven PTPs that treated wastewater from vacation properties using a range of technologies: extended aeration; sequencing batch reactor; and advanced media filtration. Influent and effluent wastewater samples were collected monthly from Feb. 2014 to Jan. 2015 and analyzed for particulate and dissolved N. Increased summer visitation associated with coastal tourism resulted in an increase in water use, wastewater inputs, and PTP N loading to the surficial aquifer. However, extended aeration systems did not have significantly elevated TN loads during the summer months because their treatment efficiency increased. N inputs associated with coastal tourism made up approximately 51% of the annual wastewater-related N load to the surficial aquifer. Onsite wastewater N-loading to the surficial aquifer (6.7 kg-N/ha/yr) appeared to be the dominant source of N loading on the island. Water quality data indicated that these N inputs have resulted in increased groundwater NO3 concentrations in the surficial aquifer. Overall, wastewater inputs added approximately 4.6 cm of groundwater recharge annually to the island. Coastal tourism can result in measurable increases in wastewater N loading, groundwater nitrogen concentrations, and groundwater recharge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson Jr W, Evans D, Snyder S (2000) The effects of Holocene barrier island evolution on water-table elevations, Hatteras Island, North Carolina, USA. Hydrogeol J 8:390–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Badruzzaman M, Pinzon J, Oppenheimer J, Jacangelo G (2012) Sources of nutrients impacting surface waters in Florida: a review. J Environ Manag 109:80–92

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boguniewicz-Zablocka J, Capodaglio A (2017) Sustainable wastewater treatment solutions for rural communities’: public (centralized) or individual (on-site)-case study. Econ Environ Stud 17(4):1103–1119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlston C (1963) Drainage density and streamflow. Geological Survey Professional Paper 422-C. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0422c/report.pdf Accessed 03 June 2018

  • Carteret County, North Carolina (2016) https://www.carteretcountync.gov/469/GIS-Services Accessed 03June 2018

  • Christianson L, Harmel R (2015) The MANAGE Drain Load database: review and compilation of more than fifty years of North American drainage nutrient studies. Ag Wat Manag 159:277–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clesceri L Greenberg A Eaton A (eds) (1998) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 20th edn. American Public Health Association/ American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC

  • Cooper J, Loomis G, Amador J (2016) Hell and high water: diminished septic system performance in coastal regions due to climate change. PLoS ONE 11(9):e0162104. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corbett D, Dillon K, Burnett W, Shaefer G (2002) The spatial variability of nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in a sand aquifer influenced by onsite sewage treatment and disposal systems: a case study on St. George Island, Florida. Environ Pollut 117:337–345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amato V, Linker L, Zhou N, Wood D, Ator S, Brakebill J, Sekellick A, and the Chesapeake Bay Onsite Wastewater Nutrient Attenuation Expert Review Panel (2016) Nutrient attenuation in Chesapeake Bay Watershed onsite wastewater treatment systems—Final Report to the US EPA. https://www.chesapeakebay.net/channel_files/24265/draft_final_report_nutrient_attenuation_in_onsite_systems_8-31-16.pdf. Accessed 01 June 2018

  • Daude D, Stephenson T (2003) Cost-effective treatment solutions for rural areas: design and operation of a new package treatment plant for single households. Wat Sci Tech 48(11–12):107–114

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dubois V, Boutin C (2018) Comparison of the design criteria of 141 onsite wastewater treatment systems available on the French market. J Environ Manag 216:299–304

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deal S, Gilliam J, Skaggs R, Konyha K (1986) Prediction of nitrogen and phosphorus losses related to agricultural drainage system design. Ag Ecosys Environ 18:37–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodds W, Bouska W, Eitzmann J, Pilger T, Pitts K, Riley A, Schloesser J, Thornbrugh A (2009) Eutrophication of U.S. freshwaters: analysis of potential economic damages. Environ Sci Tech 43(1):12–19

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dubrovsky N, Burow K, Clark G, Gronberg J, Hamilton P, Hitt K, Mueller D, Munn M, Nolan B, Puckett L, Rupert M, Short T, Spahr N, Sprague L, Wilber W (2010) The quality of our Nation’s waters—Nutrients in the Nation’s streams and groundwater, 1992–2004: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1350

  • Feagin R, Smith W, Psuty N, Young D, Martínez M, Carter G, Lucas K, Gibeaut J, Gemma J, Koske R (2010) Barrier islands: coupling anthropogenic stability with ecological sustainability. J Coast Res 26:987–992

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fountoulakis M, Terzakis S, Chatzinotas A, Brix H, Kalogerakis N, Manios T (2009) Pilot-scale comparison of constructed wetlands operated under high hydraulic loading rates and attached biofilm reactors for domestic wastewater treatment. Sci Tot Environ 407:2996–3003

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallego A, Hospido A, Moreira M, Feijoo G (2008) Environmental performance of wastewater treatment plants for small populations. Res Cons Recycl 52(2008):931–940

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giese G, Eimers J, Coble R (1997) Simulation of ground-water flow in the Coastal Plain aquifer aystem of North Carolina. USGS Professional Paper 1404-M

  • Gilliam J, Skaggs R (1986) Controlled agricultural drainage to maintain water quality. J Irrig Drain Eng 112(3):254–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill L, O’Luanaigh N, Johnston P, Misstear B, O’Suilleabhain C (2009) Nutrient loading on subsoils from on-site wastewater effluent, comparing septic tank and secondary treatment systems. Water Res 43(10):2739–2749

  • Gill L, Mockler E (2016) Modeling the pathways and attenuation of nutrients from domestic wastewater treatment systems at a catchment scale. Environ Model Softw 84:363–377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gren I, Söderqvist T, Wulff F (1997) Nutrient reductions to the Baltic Sea: ecology, costs and benefits. J Environ Manag 51:123–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman P, Law N, Belt K, Band L, Fisher G (2004) Nitrogen fluxes and retention in urban watershed ecosystems. Ecosystems 7:393–403

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo P, Thirumurthi D, Jank B (1981) Evaluation of extended aeration activated sludge package plants. J Wat Poll Contr Fed 53(1):33–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunady M, Shishkina N, Tan H, Rodriguez C (2015) A review of on-site wastewater treatment systems in Western Australia from 1997 to 2011. J Environ Pub Health Artic 716957:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanna M, Kellam J, Boardman G (1995) Onsite aerobic packaged treatment systems. Wat Res 29(II):2530–2540

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • HELCOM (2009) Eutrophication in the Baltic Sea—an integrated thematic assessment of the effects of nutrient enrichment and eutrophication in the Baltic Sea region. Balt. Sea Environ. Proc. No. 115B

  • Hellstrom D, Jonsson L (2003) Evaluation of small onsite wastewater treatment systems. Wat Sci Tech 48(11−12):61–68

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoghooghi N, Radcliffe D, Habteselassie M, Clarke J (2016) Confirmation of the impact of onsite wastewater treatment systems on stream base-flow nitrogen concentrations in urban watersheds of metropolitan Atlanta, GA. J Environ Qual 45:1740–1748

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howarth R, Marino R (2006) Nitrogen as the limiting nutrient for eutrophication in coastal marine ecosystems: evolving views over three decades. Limnol Oceano 51:364–376

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howarth R, Walker D, Sharpley A (2002) Sources of nitrogen pollution to coastal waters of the United States. Estuaries 25:656–676

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hugo G (2011) Future demographic change and its interactions with migration and climate change. Glob Environ Change 21(1):S21–S33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey C, O’Driscoll M, Zarate M (2010) Controls on groundwater nitrogen contributions from on-site wastewater systems in coastal North Carolina. Water Sci Technol 62(6):1448–55

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey C, Iverson G, O’Driscoll M (2017) Nitrogen treatment efficiency of a large onsite wastewater system in relation to water table dynamics. Clean Soil Air Water 45(12):1–9

  • Humphrey C, O’ Driscoll M, Armstrong M (2012) Onsite wastewater system nitrogen loading to groundwater in the Newport River Watershed, North Carolina. Environ Nat Resour Res 2(4):70–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey C, O’Driscoll M, Deal N, Lindbo D (2014) Fate and transport of phosphate from an on-site wastewater system in Beaufort County, North Carolina. J Environ Health 76(6):28–33

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey Jr C, O’Driscoll M (2011) Evaluation of soil colors as indicators of the seasonal high water table in coastal North Carolina. Int J Soil Sci 6(2):103–113

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey C, O’Driscoll M, Deal N, Lindbo D, Thieme S, Zarate-Bermudez M (2013) Onsite wastewater system nitrogen contributions to groundwater in coastal North Carolina. J Environ Health 76(5):16–22

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson G, O’Driscoll M, Humphrey C, Manda A, Anderson-Evans E (2015) Wastewater nitrogen contributions to Coastal Plain Watersheds, NC, USA. Water Air Soil Poll 226:325–337

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kellam J (1992) Evaluation of the performance of five aerated package treatment systems. MS Thesis in Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, p 151

  • Kiss A, Hai F, Nghiem L (2011) Roadside rest area wastewater treatment system: Performance evaluation and improvement. Desalination and Water Treatment 32 (1–3):389–396

  • Kroeger K, Cole M, York J, Valiela I (2006) Nitrogen loads to estuaries from wastewater plumes: Modeling and isotopic approaches. Groundwater 44:188–200

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li X, Zhang R (2002) Aerobic treatment of dairy wastewater with sequencing batch reactor systems. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 25:103–109

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lancellotti B, Loomis G, Hoyt K, Avizinis E, Amador J (2017) Evaluation of nitrogen concentration in final effluent of advanced nitrogen-removal onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS). Water Air Soil Pollut 228:383

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapointe B, Barile P, Littler M, Littler D (2005) Macroaglal blooms on southeast Florida coral reefs: II. Cross-shelf discrimination of nitrogen sources indicates widespread assimilation of sewage nitrogen. Harmful Algae 4(6):1106–1122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lautier J (2001) Hydrogeologic framework and ground-water conditions in the North Carolina Central Coastal Plain. North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Water Resources, Raleigh, NC

  • Line D, White N, Osmond D, Jennings G, Mojonnier C (2002) Pollutant export from various land uses in the Upper Neuse River Basin. Wat. Environ Res 74(1):100–108

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe K, Tucholke M, Tomaras J, Conn K, Hoppe C, Drewes J, McCray J, Munakata-Marr J (2009) Influent constituent of the modern waste stream from single sources. Water Environment Research Foundation. Available at: http://www.ndwrcdp.org/documents/04-DEC-1/04DEC01web.pdf

  • Mahoney R (2016) Nutrient and bacteria dynamics from package treatment plants in coastal Carteret County, North Carolina. MS Thesis, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC

  • Mahvi A, Mesdaghinia A, Mahvi F (2005) Feasibility of continuous flow sequencing batch reactor in domestic wastewater treatment. Am J Appl Sci 1(4):348–353

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland J, Valiela I (1998) Linking nitrogen in estuarine producers to land-derived sources. Limnol Oceano 43:577–585

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McIver R, Milewski I, Lotze H (2015) Land use and nitrogen loading in seven estuaries along the Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Est Coast Shelf Sci 165:137–148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mew H, Hirth D, Van Lewis D, Daniels R, Keyworth A (2002) Methodology for compiling ground water recharge maps in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain provinces of North Carolina. Ground Water Bulletin Number 25—Internal Report, Groundwater Section—Division of Water Quality, North Carolina Department of Environmental and Natural Resources, Raleigh, NC

  • Michael H, Post V, Wilson A, and Werner A (2017) Science, society, and the coastal groundwater squeeze. Water Resourc Res https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR020851

  • Mickley M (2012) US municipal desalination plants: number, types, locations, sizes, and concentrate management practices. IDA J Desal Water Reuse 4(1):44–51

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NADP (2018) National Atmospheric Deposition Program http://nadp.slh.wisc.edu/ Accessed 18 August 2019

  • NC DEQ (2016a) North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Water Resources Groundwater Data. https://www.ncwater.org/?page=20 Accessed 01 June 2018

  • NC DEQ (2016b) North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, Division of Water Resources, Non-Discharge Branch. Non-discharge permits WQ0000986 and WQ0006863 groundwater data 1989–2013 [unpublished raw data]

  • NC DEQ (2017) North Carolina public water supply data, Bogue Banks Water Corporation 2009−2016

  • NC DHHS (2018) North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Public Health, On-Site Water Protection Branch. Steven Berkowitz, 18 August 2018 [unpublished raw data].

  • NC OSBM (2018) https://files.nc.gov/ncosbm/demog/countygrowth_2030.html Accessed 03 June 2018

  • National Research Council (2008) Desalination: a national perspective. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.17226/12184. Accessed 01 June 2018

  • Neumann B, Vafeidis A, Zimmermann J, Nicholls R (2015) Future coastal population growth and exposure to sea-level rise and coastal flooding—a global assessment. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118571

  • O’Driscoll M, Humphrey C, Deal N, Lindbo D, Zarate-Bermudez M (2014) Meteorological influences on nitrogen dynamics of a coastal onsite wastewater treatment system. J Environ Qual 43(6):1873–1885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oakley S, Gold A, Ockzkowski A (2010) Nitrogen control through decentralized wastewater treatment: process performance and alternative management strategies. Ecol Eng 36(11):1520–1531

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orenco (2015) Orenco Systems, Inc., AdvanTex Wastewater Treatment Systems. http://www.orenco.com/systems/advantex_wastewater_treatment.cfm. Accessed 18 August 2019

  • Paerl H (1997) Coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms: importance of atmospheric deposition and groundwater as “new” nitrogen and other nutrient sources. Limnol Oceano 42(5):1154–1165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pradhan S, Hoover M, Austin R, Devine H (2007) Potential nitrogen contributions from on-site wastewater treatment systems to North Carolina’s river basins and sub-basins. North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Technical Bulletin 324. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC

  • Safferman S, Burks B, Parker R (2004) Carbon and nutrient removal from on-site wastewater using extended-aeration activated sludge and ion exchange. Water Environ Res 76(5):404–412

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shuler C, El-Kadi A, Dulai H, Glenn C, Fackrell J (2017) Source partitioning of anthropogenic groundwater nitrogen in a mixed-use landscape, Tutuila, American Samoa. Hydrogeol J. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-017-1617-x.

  • Shimadzu Corporation (2010) Total organic carbon analyzer user’s manual. TOC-L TOC Analyzer. http://www.shimadzu.com/an/toc/lab/tocl4.html. Accessed 01 April 2017

  • Smith V (2003) Eutrophication of freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems. A global problem. Environ Sci Pollut Res 10(2):126–139

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solorzano L (1969) Determination of ammonia in natural waters by the phenol-hypochlorite method. Limnol Oceano 14:799–801

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Szynal D (2014) Source of saltwater intrusion in the Castle Hayne Aquifer on the western part of Bogue Banks Barrier Island, North Carolina. MS Thesis, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC

  • Thomas J and Beckert K (2018) Integration and application network. University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. ian.umces.edu/imagelibrary/. Accessed 01 June 2018

  • Titus J (2010) Rolling easements. Climate Ready Estuaries Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, p 176. http://papers.risingsea.net/rolling-easements.html

  • Town of Atlantic Beach Core Land Use Plan (2006) http://atlanticbeach-nc.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/CAMA-Land-Use-Maps.pdf. Accessed 01 May 2018

  • US Census Bureau (2017) https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/download_center.xhtml. Accessed 03 June 2018

  • United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)—Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) (1987) Soil Survey of Carteret County, North Carolina

  • United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)—Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Web Soils Survey (2016) http://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm Accessed 06 December 2016

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) (2000) Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Package Plants. EPA 832-F-00-016 September 2000

  • Valiela I, Collins G, Kremer J, Lajtha K, Geist M, Seely B, Brawley J, Sham C (1997) Nitrogen loading from coastal watersheds to receiving estuaries: new method and application. Ecol Appl 7(2):358–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vinnerås B, Jönsson H (2002) The performance and potential of faecal separation and urine diversion to recycle plant nutrients in household wastewater. Bioresour Technol 84(3):275–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westco Scientific Instruments, Inc. (2008a) SmartChem 200 Method 375-100E-1, revised July 2008

  • Westco Scientific Instruments, Inc. (2008b) SmartChem 200 Method 390-200E, revised July 2008

  • Williams J, Pinder J (1990) Ground-water flow and runoff in a Coastal Plain stream. Water Resour Bull 26:343–351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson S, Fischetti T (2010) Coastal population trends in the United States: 1960−2008. Population estimates and projections. US Census Bureau Report P25-1139. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2010/demo/p25-1139.pdf

  • Winner M, Coble R (1996) Hydrogeologic framework of the North Carolina Coastal Plain. United States Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1404-I

  • Whitall D, Hendrickson B, Paerl H (2003) Importance of atmospherically deposited nitrogen to the annual nitrogen budget of the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina. Environ Int 29:393–399

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Withers P, Jordan P, May L, Jarvie H, Deal N (2014) Do septic tanks systems pose a hidden threat to water quality? Front Ecol Environ 12(2):123–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ye M, Sun H, Hallas K (2017) Numerical estimation of nitrogen load from septic systems to surface water bodies in St. Lucie River and Estuary Basin, Florida. Environ Earth Sci 76:32

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank East Carolina University for providing funding necessary to complete this research. The following are thanked for providing support through logistics and/or material support while this research was conducted: Jim Watson, John Woods, Jonathan Prevatte, Adam Trevisan, Colleen Rochelle, North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality, Bogue Banks Water Corp., Carteret County Health Department (Environmental Health), property owners, and plant operators (particularly Donald O’Mara). We thank Steven Berkowitz at NC Department of Health and Human Services for earlier advice, data sharing, and a thoughtful review. In addition, Guy Iverson provided a review of an earlier draft.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Coastal Studies, East Carolina University, 204 Graham Building, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA

    Michael O’Driscoll

  2. Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, 2295 Mowry Rd., PO Box 110940, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA

    Eban Bean

  3. Environmental Health Division of Union County Public Health, Monroe, NC, 28112, USA

    Robert N. Mahoney

  4. Environmental Health Sciences Program, East Carolina University, 3408 Carol Belk Building, Greenville, NC, 27858, USA

    Charles P. Humphrey Jr.

Authors
  1. Michael O’Driscoll
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eban Bean
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Robert N. Mahoney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Charles P. Humphrey Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael O’Driscoll.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

O’Driscoll, M., Bean, E., Mahoney, R.N. et al. Coastal Tourism and Its Influence on Wastewater Nitrogen Loading: A Barrier Island Case Study. Environmental Management 64, 436–455 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-019-01201-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-019-01201-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation