Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

River Water Pollution Status and Water Policy Scenario in Ethiopia: Raising Awareness for Better Implementation in Developing Countries

  • Published:
Environmental Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite the increasing levels of pollution in many tropical African countries, not much is known about the strength and weaknesses of policy and institutional frameworks to tackle pollution and ecological status of rivers and their impacts on the biota. We investigated the ecological status of four large river basins using physicochemical water quality parameters and bioindicators by collecting samples from forest, agriculture, and urban landscapes of the Nile, Omo-Gibe, Tekeze, and Awash River basins in Ethiopia. We also assessed the water policy scenario to evaluate its appropriateness to prevent and control pollution. To investigate the level of understanding and implementation of regulatory frameworks and policies related to water resources, we reviewed the policy documents and conducted in-depth interviews of the stakeholders. Physicochemical and biological data revealed that there is significant water quality deterioration at the impacted sites (agriculture, coffee processing, and urban landscapes) compared to reference sites (forested landscapes) in all four basins. The analysis of legal, policy, and institutional framework showed a lack of cooperation between stakeholders, lack of knowledge of the policy documents, absence of enforcement strategies, unavailability of appropriate working guidelines, and disconnected institutional setup at the grass root level to implement the set strategies as the major problems. In conclusion, river water pollution is a growing challenge and needs urgent action to implement intersectoral collaboration for water resource management that will eventually lead toward integrated watershed management. Revision of policy and increasing the awareness and participation of implementers are vital to improve ecological quality of rivers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alemayehu T (2001) The impact of uncontrolled waste disposal on surface water quality in Addis Ababa. SINET 24:93–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Alin SR, O’Reilly CM, Cohen AS, Dettman DL, Palacios-Fest MR, Mckee BA (2002) Effects of land-use change on aquatic biodiversity: a view from the paleorecord at Lake Tanganyika, East Africa. Geology 30:1143–1146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, The Water and Environment Federation (2005) Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, 21st edn. APHA, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Arimoro FO (2009) Impact of rubber effluent discharges on the water quality and macroinvertebrate community assemblages in a forest stream in the Niger Delta. Chemosphere 77:440–449. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.06.031

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell RG, Russell C (2002) Environmental policy for developing countries. Issues Sci Technol 18:63–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Benin S (2006) Policies and programs affecting land management practices, input use, and productivity in the highlands of Amhara Region, Ethiopia. In: Pender J, Place F, Ehui S (eds) Strategies for sustainable land management in the East African highlands:217. Int Food Policy Res Inst, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Beyene A, Addis T, Kifle D, Legesse W, Kloos H, Triest L (2009a) Comparative study of diatoms and macroinvertebrates as indicators of severe water pollution: case study of the Kebena and Akaki rivers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ecol Indic 9:381–392. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2008.05.001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beyene A, Legesse W, Triest L, Kloos H (2009b) Urban impact on ecological integrity of nearby rivers in developing countries: the Borkena River in highland Ethiopia. Environ Monit Assess 153:461–476. doi:10.1007/s10661-008-0371-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beyene A, Kassahun Y, Addis T, Assefa F, Amsalu A, Legesse W, Kloos H, Triest L (2012) The impact of traditional coffee processing on river water quality in Ethiopia and the urgency of adopting sound environmental practices. Environ Monit Assess 184:7053–7063

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman D (1996) Water quality assessments: a guide to the use of biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring, 2nd edn. E & Fn Spon, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Chave P (2001) The EU water framework directive. IWA publishing, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • CSA (2007) The 1994 population and housing census of Ethiopia: results at country level. Central Statistics Authority, Addis Ababa

    Google Scholar 

  • Damodaran A (2002) Conflict of trade-facilitating environmental regulations with biodiversity concerns: the case of coffee-farming units in India. World Dev 30:1123–1135. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00037-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Oliveira APJ (2002) Implementing environmental policies in developing countries through decentralization: the case of protected areas in Bahia, Brazil. World Dev 30:1713–1736. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00067-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devi R, Tesfahune E, Legesse W, Deboch B, Beyene A (2008) Assessment of siltation and nutrient enrichment of Gilgel Gibe dam, Southwest Ethiopia. Bioresour Technol 99:975–979. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.03.013

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dietz T, Rosa EA, York R (2007) Driving the human ecological footprint. Front Ecol Environ 5:13–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dworak T, Gonzalez C, Laaser C, Interwies E (2005) The need for new monitoring tools to implement the WFD. Environ Sci Policy 8:301–306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EEPA (2004) Environmental policy of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority (EEPA) in Collaboration with the Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation, Addis Ababa

    Google Scholar 

  • EEPA (2008) Standards for specified industrial sectors. Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority (EEPA), Addis Ababa

  • FDRE (2000) Ethiopian Water Resources Management Proclamation. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eth44004.pdf. Accessed 25 May 2015

  • FDRE (2002) Environmental pollution control proclamation No.300/2002. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE).  http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eth44282.pdf. Accessed 25 May 2015

  • Gadgil A (1998) Drinking water in developing countries. Annu Rev Energy Environ 23:253–286. doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon C, Manson R, Sundberg J, Cruz-Angón A (2007) Biodiversity, profitability, and vegetation structure in a Mexican coffee agroecosystem. Agric Ecosyst Environ 118:256–266. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross A (1986) Water quality management worldwide. Environ Manag 10:25–39. doi:10.1007/bf01866415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haddis A, Devi R (2008) Effect of effluent generated from coffee processing plant on the water bodies and human health in its vicinity. J Hazard Mater 152:259–262. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.06.094

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hailu D, Legesse W (1997) Assessment of pollution status of Awetu stream, Ethiopia. Bull Jimma Inst Health Sci 7:79–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD (2001) PAST: paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontol Electron 4(1):9

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilsenhoff WL (1988) Rapid field assessment of organic pollution with a family-level biotic index. J N Am Benthol Soc 7:65–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho KC, Hui KCC (2001) Chemical contamination of the East River (Dongjiang) and its implication on sustainable development in the Pearl River Delta. Environ Int 26:303–308. doi:10.1016/S0160-4120(01)00004-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoben A (1995) Paradigms and politics: the cultural construction of environmental policy in Ethiopia. World Dev 23:1007–1021. doi:10.1016/0305-750X(95)00019-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joshi HC, Sukumaran PK (1991) Water pollution investigation in the river Tungabhadra near Harikar, Karnataka. Indian J Anim Sci 61:230–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamara AB, Swallow B, Kirk M (2004) Policies, interventions and institutional change in pastoral resource management in Borana, southern Ethiopia. Dev Policy Rev 22:381–403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kareiva P, Watts S, McDonald R, Boucher T (2007) Domesticated nature: shaping landscapes and ecosystems for human welfare. Science 316:1866–1869. doi:10.1126/science.1140170

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly MG et al (1998) Recommendations for the routine sampling of diatoms for water quality assessments in Europe. J Appl Phycol 10:215–224. doi:10.1023/a:1008033201227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kloos H, Legesse W (2010) Water resources management in Ethiopia: implications for the Nile Basin. Cambria Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lecointe C, Coste M, Prygiel J (1993) ‘Omnidia’: software for taxonomy, calculation of diatom indices and inventories management. Hydrobiologia 269(270):509–513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lélé SM (1991) Sustainable development: a critical review. World Dev 19:607–621. doi:10.1016/0305-750X(91)90197-P

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Gómez AM, Williams-Linera G, Manson RH (2008) Tree species diversity and vegetation structure in shade coffee farms in Veracruz, Mexico. Agric Ecosyst Environ 124:160–172. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2007.09.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mati BM, Mutie S, Gadain H, Home P, Mtalo F (2008) Impacts of land-use/cover changes on the hydrology of the transboundary Mara River, Kenya/Tanzania. Lakes Reserv 13:169–177. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1770.2008.00367.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mburu JK, Mwaura PK (1996) Environmentally sound management of coffee processing by-products: a review. Kenya Coffee 61:2237–2244

    Google Scholar 

  • McAleece N, Lambshead PJD, Paterson GLJ (1997) Biodiversity pro: statistics software for ecology. The Natural History Museum and the Scotish association for marine science, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Meinzen-Dick RS, Appasamy PP (2002) Urbanization and intersectoral competition for water. In: Finding the source: the linkages between population and water. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC, pp 27–51

  • Metcalfe JL (1989) Biological water quality assessment of running waters based on macroinvertebrate communities: history and present status in Europe. Environ Pollut 60:101–139. doi:10.1016/0269-7491(89)90223-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MoNRDEP (1994) National policy on natural resources and the environment. Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection (MoNRDEP), Addis Ababa

    Google Scholar 

  • MoWE (2002) Water sector development program. Ministry of Water and Energy (MoWE) of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. http://www.mowr.gov.et/attachmentfiles/Downloads/Water%20Sector%20Development%20Program%20Vol.1.doc. Accessed 15 May 2015

  • MoWIE (2001) Ethiopian water sector policy. Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (MoWIE) of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. http://www.mowr.gov.et/attachmentfiles/Downloads/Water%20policy.doc. Accessed 15 May 2014

  • MoWIE (2005). Ethiopian water sector strategy. Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy (MoWIE) of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. http://www.mowr.gov.et/attachmentfiles/Downloads/Water%20strategy.doc. Accessed Dec 2014

  • MoWRE (1998) Ethiopian water resources management policy. Ministry of Water and Energy (MoWE) of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa

    Google Scholar 

  • Mukheibir P (2010) Water access, water scarcity, and climate change. Environ Manage 45:1027–1039. doi:10.1007/s00267-010-9474-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mwaura PK, Mburu JK (1998) Effect of wet processing of coffee on river water quality. Kenya Coffee 63:2779–2787

    Google Scholar 

  • Ndiritu GG, Gichuki NN, Kaur P, Triest L (2003) Characterization of environmental gradients using physico-chemical measurements and diatom densities in Nairobi river, Kenya. Aquat Ecosyst Health Manag 6:343–354. doi:10.1080/14634980301484

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nyenje PM, Foppen JW, Uhlenbrook S, Kulabako R, Muwanga A (2010) Eutrophication and nutrient release in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa—a review. Sci Total Environ 408:447–455. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.10.020

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oki T, Kanae S (2006) Global hydrological cycles and world water resources. Science 313:1068–1072. doi:10.1126/science.1128845

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ostermiller JD, Hawkins CP (2004) Effects of sampling error on bioassessments of stream ecosystems: application to RIVPACS-type models. J N Am Benthol Soc 23:363–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pandey S (2006) Water pollution and health. Kathmandu Univ Med J 4(1):128–134

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perfecto I, Rice RA, Greenberg R, Van der Voort E (1996) Shade coffee: a disappearing refuge for biodiversity. Bioscience 46:598–608

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Postel SL (2000) Entering an era of water scarcity: the challenges ahead. Ecol Appl 10:941–948

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynoldson TB, Norris RH, Resh VH, Day KE, Rosenberg DM (1997) The reference condition: a comparison of multimetric and multivariate approaches to assess water-quality impairment using benthic macroinvertebrates. J N Am Benthol Soc 16:833–852

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shannon CE, Weaver W (1963) The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press, Urbana

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiferaw B, Holden ST (2000) Policy instruments for sustainable land management: the case of highland smallholders in Ethiopia. Agric Econ 22:217–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson EH (1949) Measurement of diversity. Nature 163:688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taddese G (2001) Land degradation: a challenge to Ethiopia. Environ Manag 27:815–824. doi:10.1007/s002670010190

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tedla S, Lemma K (1998) Environmental management in Ethiopia: have the national conservation plans worked?. Organization for social science research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA), Addis Ababa

    Google Scholar 

  • Triest L, Kaur P, Heylen S, De Pauw N (2001) Comparative monitoring of diatoms, macroinvertebrates and macrophytes in the Woluwe River (Brussels, Belgium). Aquat Ecol 35:183–194. doi:10.1023/a:1011468615246

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • US-EPA (1986) Quality criteria for water. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Bruggen B, Smets IY, Haddis A (2009) Impact of wastewater discharge in Jimma, Ethiopia, and remediation possibilities. Desalination 248:603–609. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vergara CH, Badano EI (2009) Pollinator diversity increases fruit production in Mexican coffee plantations: the importance of rustic management systems. Agric Ecosyst Environ 129:117–123. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.08.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xue X, Liao J, Hsing Y, Huang C, Liu F (2015) Policies, land use, and water resource management in an Arid Oasis ecosystem. Environ Manag 55:1036–1051. doi:10.1007/s00267-015-0451-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR) for funding the PhD scholarship of Aymere Awoke Assayie and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB, BAS42) and Jimma University, Ethiopia for financial and logistic support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Health Sciences and Technology, Jimma University, P.O. Box 378, Jimma, Ethiopia

    Aymere Awoke & Abebe Beyene

  2. Department of Biology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050, Brussels, Belgium

    Aymere Awoke & Ludwig Triest

  3. Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, Box 0560, 185 Berry Street, San Francisco, CA, 94143-0560, USA

    Helmut Kloos

  4. Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, J. Plateaustraat 22, 9000, Ghent, Belgium

    Peter L.M. Goethals

Authors
  1. Aymere Awoke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Abebe Beyene
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Helmut Kloos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter L.M. Goethals
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ludwig Triest
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aymere Awoke.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Awoke, A., Beyene, A., Kloos, H. et al. River Water Pollution Status and Water Policy Scenario in Ethiopia: Raising Awareness for Better Implementation in Developing Countries. Environmental Management 58, 694–706 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-016-0734-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-016-0734-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation