Abstract
Genetically modified (GM) crops have been and continue to be a subject of controversy despite their rapid adoption by farmers where approved. For the last two decades, an important matter of debate has been their impact on pesticide use, particularly for herbicide-tolerant (HT) crops. Some claim that these crops bring about a decrease in herbicide use, while others claim the opposite. In fact, since 1996, most cultivated GMOs have been GMHT crops, which involve the use of an associated herbicide, generally glyphosate. In their very first years of adoption, HT crops often led to some decrease in herbicide use. However, the repetition of glyphosate-tolerant crops and of glyphosate only applications in the same fields without sufficient alternation and herbicide diversity has contributed to the appearance of glyphosate-resistant weeds. These weeds have resulted in a rise in the use of glyphosate and other herbicides. This article explores this situation and the impacts of herbicide-resistant weeds, using an interdisciplinary approach and drawing on recent data. The paper analyzes the spread of GMHT crops worldwide and their consequences on herbicide use in the USA in particular. It then addresses the global development of glyphosate-resistant weeds and their impact, particularly focusing on the USA. Finally, the last section explores how industry, farmers, and weed scientists are coping with the spread of resistant weeds. The concluding comments deal more widely with trends in GM crops.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
To determine that a GM plant is no longer considered a regulated article, APHIS evaluates data submitted by the Company and analyzes publicly available scientific data, as well as comments received from the public on the petition for non-regulated status and its associated Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) on one hand and plant pest risk assessments on the other hand (APHIS 2014).
The sales of glyphosate were generally profitable to Monsanto and to a few generic glyphosate producers, despite the fierce competition among them after its patent expiration in the USA. Meanwhile, the market of the other herbicides was greatly affected because it remained rather stagnant. It would be difficult for companies other than Monsanto to invest in prolonging glyphosate life, given that, despite the development of generics, Monsanto has kept a high part of the glyphosate market, notably because of its formulations and marketing (Grand View Research 2014). Therefore, glyphosate sales and glyphosate-tolerant traits were profitable, particularly for Monsanto and a few other companies.
Abbreviations
- APHIS:
-
USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
- BMPs:
-
Best management practices
- GM:
-
Genetically modified
- GMHT:
-
Genetically modified herbicide-tolerant
- GMGT:
-
Genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant
- GR:
-
Glyphosate-resistant (for weeds)
- GT:
-
Glyphosate-tolerant (for crops)
- HR:
-
Herbicide-resistant (for weeds)
- HT:
-
Herbicide-tolerant (for crops)
- USDA:
-
United States Department of Agriculture
- USDA-ERS:
-
USDA Economic Research Service
- USDA-NASS:
-
USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service
- USEPA:
-
US Environmental Protection Agency
- USGS:
-
US Geological Survey
References
Adler J (2011) The growing menace from superweeds. Sci Am 304:74–79
Agrow (2014) Agrow Herbicides and Weed Control 2014. Informa Agra, London. www.agra-net.com
APHIS (2014) Biotechnology Environmental Documents for Permits and Petitions. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wps/portal/aphis/ourfocus/biotechnology/sa_environmental_documents/. Accessed 18 July 2015
Arbuckle JG Jr (2014) Iowa farm and rural life poll: farmer perspectives on pesticide resistance. Iowa State Un. Extension and Outreach, Report number: PM3070, Ames
ASA (2013) Letter to APHIS, comments regarding the USDA intent to conduct an Environmental Impact Statement for several critical new technologies, including dicamba tolerant soybeans. American Soybean Association, St. Louis, MO, 17/07/2013
Asmus A, Clay SA, Ren C (2013) Summary of certified crop advisors’ response to a weed resistance survey. Agron J 105:1160–1166
Bagavathiannan MV, Norsworthy JK, Scott RC, Barber TL (2013) The spread of herbicide-resistant weeds: what should growers know?. University of Arkansas, Little Rock
Baker NT, Stone WW (2015) Estimated annual agricultural pesticide use for counties of the conterminous United States, 2008–2012. USGS Data Series 907, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ds907
Bark T et al (2014) Letter to EPA on “Dow AgroSciences application to amend their 2,4-D choline salt herbicide for use on 2,4-D tolerant corn and soybeans”, Docket EPA-HQ-OPP-2014-0195 30 June 2014. http://cdn.ewg.org/sites/default/files/testimony/LetterToEPA_Enlist_MedSci_FINAL_06_30_14_0.pdf
Barker D (2014) Genetically engineered (GE) crops: a misguided strategy for the twenty-first century? Development 57(2):192–200. doi:10.1057/dev.2014.68
Battaglin WA, Meyer MT, Kuivila KM, Dietze JE (2014) Glyphosate and its degradation product AMPA occur frequently and widely in US soils, surface water, groundwater, and precipitation. J Am Water Resour Assoc 50(2):275–290. doi:10.1111/jawr.12159
Beckie HJ (2011) Herbicide-resistant weed management: focus on glyphosate. Pest Manag Sci 67(9):1037–1048
Beckie HJ, Hall LM (2014) Genetically-modified herbicide-resistant (GMHR) crops a two-edged sword? An Americas perspective on development and effect on weed management. Crop Prot 66:40–45. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2014.08.014
Beckie HJ, Tardif FJ (2012) Herbicide cross resistance in weeds. Crop Prot 35:15–28
Behrens MR, Mutlu N, Chakraborty S et al (2007) Dicamba resistance: enlarging and preserving biotechnology-based weed management strategies. Science 316(5828):1185–1188
Benbrook CM (2012) Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the US, the first sixteen years. Environ Sci Eur 24(24):2190–4715
Beyond Pesticides (2014) Next Up: 2,4-D Weed and insect resistance caused by genetically engineered crop failure treadmill. Beyond Pesticides, Washington DC. http://www.beyondpesticides.org/infoservices/pesticidesandyou/documents/24DandGEcrops.pdf. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Binimelis R, Pengue W, Monterroso I (2009) Transgenic treadmill: responses to the emergence and spread of glyphosate-resistant Johnsongrass in Argentina. Geoforum 40:623–633
Boerboom C, Owen M Eds (2007) National Glyphosate Stewardship Forum II: A Call to Action. St Louis, MO, 20–21/03/2007. http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/2007/NGSFII_final.pdf. Accessed 24 July 2015
Bøhn T, Cuhra M, Traavik T, Sanden M, Fagan J, Primicerio R (2014) Compositional differences in soybeans on the market: glyphosate accumulates in roundup ready GM soybeans. Food Chem 153:207–215
Bonny S (2008) Genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant soybean in the USA: adoption factors, impacts and prospects. Agron Sustain Dev 28(1):21–32
Bonny S (2011) Herbicide-tolerant transgenic soybean over 15 years of cultivation: pesticide use, weed resistance, and some economic issues. The case of the USA. Sustainability 3(9):1302–1322. doi:10.3390/su3091302
Bourguet D et al (2013) Heterogeneity of selection and the evolution of resistance. Trends Ecol Evol 28(2):110–118
Bradberry SM, Proudfoot AT, Vale JA (2004) Glyphosate poisoning. Toxicol Rev 23(3):159–167
Bradshaw LD, Padgette SR, Kimball SL, Wells BH (1997) Perspectives on glyphosate resistance. Weed Technol 11(1):189–198. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3988252
Buhler DD (2002) 50th Anniversary, Invited Article: challenges and opportunities for integrated weed management. Weed Sci 50(3):273–280
CAST (2012) Herbicide-resistant weeds threaten soil conservation gains: finding a balance for soil and farm sustainability. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames
Center for Food Safety, Consumers Union, Environmental Working Group, Food & Water Watch, Friends of the Earth, Just Label It, Natural Resources Defense Council, Pesticide Action Network North America (2015) Letter to EPA to weigh heavily the decision by WHO to categorize glyphosate as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (…), 26/03/2015
Cerdeira AL, Duke SO (2006) The current status and environmental impacts of glyphosate-resistant crops. J Environ Qual 35(5):1633–1658
Consumer Reports (2015) From crop to table report pesticide use in produce. Consumer Reports Magazine, May 2015, Special Section. https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/05/index.htm
Coombs A (2012) Revenge of the weeds. Scientist 20/05/2012
Coupe RH, Barlow JR, Capel PD (2012) Complexity of human and ecosystem interactions in an agricultural landscape. Environ Dev 4:88–104
Cowan R, Gunby P (1996) Sprayed to death: path dependence lock-in and pest control strategies. Econ J 106:521–542
Croplife (2015) Plant biotechnology pipeline. Croplife (Global federation representing the plant science industry), Brussels
Duke SO (2012) Why have no new herbicide modes of action appeared in recent years? Pest Manag Sci 68(4):505–512. doi:10.1002/ps.2333
Duke SO, Powles SB (2008) Glyphosate: a once-in-a-century herbicide. Pest Manag Sci 64(4):319–325
Duke SO, Powles SB (2009) Glyphosate-resistant crops and weeds: now and in the future. AgBioForum 12(3&4):346–357
Dupraz E (2012) Note, Monsanto and the Quasi-Per Se illegal rule for bundled discounts. Vermont Law Rev 37(1):203–237
Edwards CB, Jordan DL, Owen MD et al (2014) Benchmark study on glyphosate-resistant crop systems in the United States. Economics of herbicide resistance management practices in a 5 year field-scale study. Pest Manag Sci 70(12):1924–1929
Egan JK, Barlow KM, Mortensen DA (2014) A meta-analysis on the effects of 24-D and Dicamba drift on soybean and cotton. Weed Sci 62(1):193–206. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00025.1
Ehler LE (2006) Integrated pest management (IPM): definition historical development and implementation and the other IPM. Pest Manag Sci 62:787–789. doi:10.1002/ps.1247
Erickson FL, Lemaux PG (2000) Issues related to the development and use of engineered herbicide-tolerant crops in California. Calif Weed Sci Soc Conf Proc 52:45–53
Ervin DE, Jussaume R (2014) Integrating social science into managing herbicide-resistant weeds and associated environmental impacts. Weed Sci 62(2):403–414. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00085.1
Ervin DE et al (2010) The impact of genetically engineered crops on farm sustainability in the United States. NAP, National Research Council, Washington DC
EWG (2015) GMO Foods. Environmental Working Group. Washington DC http://www.ewg.org/key-issues/food/gmo-foods. Accessed 24 July 2015
FAO (2004). The state of food and agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology. Meeting the needs of the poor? FAO, Rome
Feng PCC et al (2010) Glyphosate-resistant crops: developing the next generation products. In: Nandula VK (ed) op. cit. pp 45–66
Fernandez-Cornejo J, Wechsler S, Livingston M, Mitchell L (2014) Genetically engineered crops in the United States. ERR-162. USDA-ERS
FoE (2015) Spinning food: how food industry front groups and covert communications are shaping the story of food. Friends of the Earth US, Washington DC
Freese B (2014a) Comments to USDA’s APHIS on the Agency’s draft Environmental impact statement on Monsanto Petitions (10-188-01p and 12-185-01p) for determinations of nonregulated status for Dicamba-resistant soybean and cotton varieties. Center for Food Safety, Washington DC, +appendix
Freese B (2014b) Comments to USDA’s APHIS on Dow AgroSciences LLC draft environmental impact statement for determinations of nonregulated status of herbicide resistant corn and soybean. Center for Food Safety, Washington DC
Frisvold GB, Reeves JM (2010) Resistance management and sustainable use of agricultural biotechnology. AgBioForum 13(4):343–359
Frisvold GB, Reeves JM (2014) Herbicide resistant crops and weeds: implications for herbicide use and weed management. In: Pimentel D, Peshin R (eds) Integrated pest management: pesticide problems 3(3). Springer, Netherlands, pp 331–354
Gerwick C (2010) Thirty years of herbicide discovery: surveying the past and contemplating the future. Agrow World Crop Prot News 600:vii–ix, 24/09/2010
Givens WA, Shaw DR, Kruger GR et al (2009) Survey of tillage trends following the adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops. Weed Technol 23:150–155
Givens WA, Shaw DR, Newman ME, Weller SC et al (2011) Benchmark study on glyphosate-resistant cropping systems in the United States. Part 3: Grower awareness, information sources, experiences and management practices regarding glyphosate-resistant weeds. Pest Manag Sci 67:758–770. doi:10.1002/ps.2178
Grand View Research (2014) Glyphosate market analysis by application (Conventional Crops, GM Crops) and segment forecasts to 2020. Grand View Research, San Francisco
Green JM (2014) Current state of herbicides in herbicide-resistant crops. Pest Manag Sci 70(9):1351–1357
Green JM, Owen MDK (2011) Herbicide-resistant crops: utilities and limitations for herbicide-resistant weed management. J Agr Food Chem 59(11):5819–5829. doi:10.1021/jf101286h
Gressel J (2010) Global advances in weed management. J Agric Sci 149:47–53
Grube A, Donaldson D, Kiely T, Wu L (2011) Pesticides industry sales and usage 2006 and 2007 market estimates. USEPA Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, Washington DC
Guyton KZ et al (2015) Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate. Lancet Oncol. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(15)70134-8
Harker KN (2013) Slowing weed evolution with integrated weed management. Can J Plant Sci 93(5):759–764
Harker KN, O’Donovan JT (2013) Recent weed control, weed management, and integrated weed management. Weed Technol 27(1):1–11. doi:10.1614/WT-D-12-00109.1
Harker KN, O’Donovan JT, Blackshaw RE, Beckie HJ, Mallory-Smith C, Maxwell BD (2012) Editorial our view. Weed Sci 60(2):143–144. doi:10.1614/WS-D-11-00177.1
Hartzler B (1998) Are Roundup Ready weeds in your future? Iowa State University, Department of Agronomy. http://www.weeds.iastate.edu/mgmt/qtr98-4/roundupfuture.htm. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Heap I (1997) The occurrence of herbicide-resistant weeds worldwide. Pestic Sci 51(3):235–243
Heap I (2013) Overview of global herbicide resistance cases and lessons learnt. Communication at the International Conference “Global Herbicide Resistance Challenge” Perth, Australia, 18–22/02/2013
Heap I (2014) Global perspective of herbicide-resistant weeds. Pest Manag Sci 70(9):1306–1315. doi:10.1002/ps.3696
Heap I (2015) The International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds. http://www.weedscience.org. Accessed 22 July 2015
HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank) (2015a). 2,4-D. National Library of Medicine, Bethesda (MD). http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?HSDB. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
HSDB (Hazardous Substances Data Bank) (2015b). Dicamba. National Library of Medicine Bethesda (MD), http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/htmlgen?HSDB. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) (2015) Vol. 112: Some organophosphate insecticides and herbicides: tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate. IARC Working Group. Lyon, 3-10/03/2015. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risk Chem Hum
James C (2014 and previous years) Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2014. ISAAA Briefs (49). ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications), Ithaca, NY
Johnson WG, Owen MDK, Kruger GR et al (2009) US farmer awareness of glyphosate-resistant weeds and resistance management strategies. Weed Technol 23:308–312. doi:10.1614/WT-08-181.1
Just Label It (2015) What are genetically engineered foods/GMOs? Related pages. Just Label It, Washington DC. http://www.justlabelit.org/about-ge-foods-center/about-gmo-foods/. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Kleter GA, Bhula R, Bodnaruk K, Carazo E, Felsot AS, Harris CA et al (2007) Altered pesticide use on transgenic crops and the associated general impact from an environmental perspective. Pest Manag Sci 63(11):1107–1115
Kling J (2014) Labeling for better or worse. Nat Biotechnol 32(12):1180–1183
Klümper W, Qaim M (2014) A meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops. PLoS One 9(11):e111629
Knezevic SZ (2014) Integrated weed management in soybean. In: Chauhan BS, Mahajan G (eds) Recent advances in weed management. Springer, New York, pp 223–237
Kniss A (2013) Where are the super weeds? Control freaks, 1/05/2013. Wyoming weed science. http://weedcontrolfreaks.com/2013/05/superweed/
Kniss AR, Coburn CW (2015) Quantitative evaluation of the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) for comparing herbicides. PLoS One 10(6):e0131200
Kovach J et al (1992) A method to measure the environmental impact of pesticides. New York's Food and Life Sciences Bulletin No. 139, Cornell Univ., Ithaca
Kraehmer H et al (2014) Herbicides as weed control agents: state of the art: II. Recent achievements. Plant Physiol 166(3):1132–1148
Livingston M, Fernandez-Cornejo J, Unger J, Osteen C, Schimmelpfennig D, Park T, Lambert D (2015) The economics of glyphosate resistance management in corn and soybean production. USDA-ERS, Washington DC
Loomis D et al (2015) Carcinogenicity of lindane, DDT, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Lancet Oncol, 22/06/2015. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(15)00081-9
McFadden BR, Lusk JL (2013) Effects of cost and campaign advertising on support for California’s Proposition 37. J Agr Resour Econ 38(2):174–186
Miller P (2010) Are “superweeds’’ an outgrowth of USDA biotech policy? (part ii). Written Statement of PW Miller on behalf of Monsanto Company for the Sept 30, 2010. Hearing of the Domestic Policy Subcommittee of the US House of Representatives Oversight & Government Reform Committee, 111 Congress, 2nd session. https://oversight.house.gov/hearing/are-superweeds-an-outgrowth-of-usda-biotech-policy-part-ii/. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Monsanto (2003a) Roundup ready soybeans. Brochure, Monsanto, St Louis
Monsanto (2003b) Managing weed resistance. The facts. Monsanto, St Louis
Mortensen D, Egan JF, Maxwell BD, Ryan MR, Smith RG (2012) Navigating a critical juncture for sustainable weed management. Bioscience 62(1):75–84
Nandula VK (2010) Glyphosate resistance in crops and weeds: history development and management. Wiley, Hoboken
Nature’s Editorial (2014) A growing problem. Nature 510:187. doi:10.1038/510187a
Neve P, Diggle AJ, Smith FP, Powles SB (2003) Simulating evolution of glyphosate resistance in Lolium rigidum II: past, present and future glyphosate use in Australian cropping. Weed Res 43(6):418–427
Norsworthy JK, Ward SM, Shaw DR et al (2012) Reducing the risks of herbicide resistance: best management practices and recommendations. Weed Sci 60(sp1):31–62
Osteen CD, Fernandez-Cornejo J (2013) Economic and policy issues of US agricultural pesticide use trends. Pest Manag Sci 69(9):1001–1025. doi:10.1002/ps.3529
Owen MDK, Young BG, Shaw DR et al (2011) Benchmark study on glyphosate-resistant crop systems in the United States. Part 2: Perspectives. Pest Manag Sci 67(7):747–757
Owen MDK, Beckie HJ, Leeson JY, Norsworthy JK, Steckel LE (2014) Integrated pest management and weed management in the United States and Canada. Pest Manag Sci 71:357–376. doi:10.1002/ps.3928
Phillips McDougall (2010) The cost of new agrochemical product discovery, development and registration in 1995, 2000 and 2005–2008. R&D expenditure in 2007 and expectations for 2012. Consultancy study for CropLife America and the European Crop Protection Association. Phillips McDougall, Midlothian, UK
Powles SB, Yu Q (2010) Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides. Annu Rev Plant Biol 61:317–347
Powles SB, Lorraine-Colwill DF, Dellow JJ, Preston C (1998) Evolved resistance to glyphosate in rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) in Australia. Weed Sci 46(5):604–607. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4045968
Price AJ, Balkcom KS, Culpepper SA, Kelton JA, Nichols RL, Schomberg H (2011) Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth: a threat to conservation tillage. J Soil Water Conserv 66(4):265–275
Prince JM, Shaw DR, Givens WA et al (2012) Benchmark study: III. Survey on changing herbicide use patterns in glyphosate-resistant cropping systems. Weed Technol 26(3):536–542
Public comments (2014) Comments on Docket No. APHIS-2013-043 regarding Dicamba-Tolerant Soybeans and Cotton (MON 87708 and MON 88701). http://www.regulations.gov/. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Public comments (2015) Evaluation of 2,4-D choline salt herbicide on enlist corn and soybeans. Docket ID: EPA-HQ-OPP-2014-0195. US EPA. http://www.regulations.gov/. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Puente M, Darnall N, Forkner RE (2011) Assessing integrated pest management adoption: measurement problems and policy implications. Environ Manag 48(5):1013–1023
Rabobank International (2012) Nature finds a way: the rising cost of herbicide-resistant weeds in the U.S. Rabo AgFocus, June
Reddy KN (2001) Glyphosate-resistant soybean as a weed management tool: opportunities and challenges. Weed Biol Manag 1(4):193–202
Reuters (2015). [Corrected] US regulators may recommend testing food for glyphosate residues. Reuters, 17/04/2015
Riar DS, Norsworthy JK, Steckel LE et al (2013) Adoption of best management practices for herbicide-resistant weeds in Midsouthern United States cotton, rice, and soybean. Weed Technol 27(4):788–797. doi:10.1614/WT-D-13-00087.1
Ricroch AE, Hénard-Damave MC (2015) Next biotech plants: new traits crops developers and technologies for addressing global challenges. Crit Rev Biotechnol. doi:10.3109/07388551.2015.1004521
Roulac JW (2015) Food trends of today & tomorrow. Presentation at The Food Leaders Summit 2015, 27–29/04/2015, Chicago
Service RF (2007) A growing threat down on the farm. Science 316(5828):114–117. doi:10.1126/science.316.5828.1114
Service RF (2013) What happens when weed killers stop killing? Science 341(6152):1329. doi:10.1126/science.341.6152.1329
Shaner DL (2000) The impact of glyphosate tolerant crops on the use of other herbicides and on resistance management. Pest Manag Sci 56(4):320–326
Shaner DL, Beckie HJ (2014) The future for weed control and technology. Pest Manag Sci 70(9):1329–1339. doi:10.1002/ps.3706
Sosnoskie LM, Culpepper AS (2014) Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) increases herbicide use, tillage, and hand-weeding in Georgia cotton. Weed Sci 62(2):393–402
Southwest Farm Press (2001) No-till know-how with Dr. John Bradley. 1/02/2001. http://southeastfarmpress.com/no-till-know-how-dr-john-bradley
Stokstad E (2013) The war against weeds down under. Science 341(6147):734–736
Stratus Ag Research (2013) Glyphosate resistant weeds—intensifying. Stratus Ag Research, Guelph
Stratus Ag Research (2014) Ag retailers play a critical role in best management practices for herbicides. Stratus Ag Research, Guelph, Canada
Székács A, Darvas B (2012) Forty years with glyphosate. In: Naguib Hasaneen M (ed) Herbicides: properties, synthesis and control of weeds. InTechOpen, Rijeka, Croatia. pp 247–284. http://www.intechopen.com/books/herbicides-properties-synthesis-and-control-of-weeds/forty-years-with-glyphosate
Tabashnik BE, Mota-Sanchez D, Whalon ME, Hollingworth RM, Carrière Y (2014) Defining terms for proactive management of resistance to Bt crops and pesticides. J Econ Entomol 107(2):496–507. doi:10.1603/EC13458
Thelin GP, Stone WW (2013) Estimation of annual agricultural pesticide use for counties of the conterminous United States, 1992–2009. USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2013–5009
USDA-APHIS (2015) Biotechnology. Petitions for Determination of Nonregulated Status. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/petitions_table_pending.shtml. Accessed 24 July 2015
USDA-ERS (2014). ARMS farm financial and crop production practices, database, http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/arms-farm-financial-and-crop-production-practices/tailored-reports-crop-production-practices.aspx Accessed 1 Jul 2015
USDA-ERS (2015) Adoption of genetically engineered crops in the US. USDA-ERS. www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/adoption-of-genetically-engineered-crops-in-the-us.aspx. Accessed 10 July 2015
USDA-NASS (1991–2013) Agricultural chemical usage, field crops summary. USDA ESMIS (Economics, Statistics and Market Information System), Mann Library, Cornell University, 1990–2013. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=1560. Accessed 1 July 2015
USDA-NASS (2013) Agricultural Chemical Use Program. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Surveys/Guide_to_NASS_Surveys/Chemical_Use/. Accessed 1 July 2015
USDA-NASS (2014) Agricultural Resource Management Survey. US Soybean Industry. NASS Highlights. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Surveys/Guide_to_NASS_Surveys/Ag_Resource_Management/ARMS_Soybeans_Factsheet/index.asp. Accessed 10 Apr 2015
USEPA (1993) RED (Reregistration Eligibility Decision) Fact: Glyphosate. EPA-738-F-93-011, Sept. 1993. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances, Office of Pesticide Programs, US GPO, Washington, DC
USEPA (2014) Final Registration of Enlist DuoTM Herbicide. 15/10/2014
USEPA (2015) Glyphosate. Regulatory Actions. USEPA, Office of Pesticide Programs. http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=CHEMICALSEARCH:31:0::NO:1,3,31,7,12,25:P3_XCHEMICAL_ID:2477. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
USGS (2015a) Pesticide National Synthesis Project. National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. USGS. https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/about.php. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
USGS (2015b) Pesticide Use Maps. Pesticide National Synthesis Project. National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. USGS. https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/compound_listing.php. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
USGS (2015c) Pesticide Use Maps: Glyphosate. Pesticide National Synthesis Project. NAWQA Program. USGS. https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/show_map.php?year=2012&map=GLYPHOSATE&hilo=L&disp=Glyphosate. Accessed 18 Aug 2015
Vencill WK, Nichols RL, Webster TM et al (2012) Herbicide resistance: Toward an understanding of resistance development and the impact of herbicide-resistant crops. Weed Sci 60(sp1):2–30
Waltz E (2010) Glyphosate resistance threatens Roundup hegemony. Nat Biotechnol 28(6):537–538
Waltz E (2015) Monsanto adds dicamba to its cache to counter weed threat. Nat Biotechnol 33(4):328
Ward SM, Webster TM, Steckel LE (2013) Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri): a review. Weed Technol 27(1):12–27
Webster TM, Sosnoskie LM (2010) Loss of glyphosate efficacy: a changing weed spectrum in Georgia cotton. Weed Sci 58(1):73–79
Wikipedia (2015a) Genetically modified food controversies. Wikipedia, 23 June 2015
Wikipedia (2015b) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Wikipedia, 27 June 2015
Wikipedia (2015c) Dicamba. Wikipedia, 27 June 2015
Wilson L (2015) Trust us, it’s harmless. Could the popular herbicide glyphosate be destroying our health? Natural Grocers, April 2015. https://www.naturalgrocers.com/nutrition-and-health/nutrition-library/nutrition-article/trust-us-its-harmless/
WSSA (2013) Letter to APHIS. Re: Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS for determination of Nonregulated Status for 2,4-D resistant corn and soybeans and for dicamba resistant cotton and soybeans. WSSA (Weed Science Society of America), Lawrence, KS
WSSA (2014) Resistance Summit II, 2nd National Summit on Strategies to Manage Herbicide-Resistant Weeds. Washington, DC, 10/09/2014. http://wssa.net/weed/resistance-summit-ii/. Accessed 10 Apr 2015
Acknowledgments
This article is the result of a research work carried out without special funding, i.e., with the basic support provided by INRA (French National Institute for Agricultural Research), which is a public research institute and a publicly funded institution.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bonny, S. Genetically Modified Herbicide-Tolerant Crops, Weeds, and Herbicides: Overview and Impact. Environmental Management 57, 31–48 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-015-0589-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-015-0589-7