Skip to main content

A Hierarchical Approach to Forest Landscape Pattern Characterization

Environmental Management volume 49, pages 64–81 (2012)Cite this article

Abstract

Landscape spatial patterns have increasingly been considered to be essential for environmental planning and resources management. In this study, we proposed a hierarchical approach for landscape classification and evaluation by characterizing landscape spatial patterns across different hierarchical levels. The case study site is the Red Hills region of northern Florida and southwestern Georgia, well known for its biodiversity, historic resources, and scenic beauty. We used one Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper image to extract land-use/-cover information. Then, we employed principal-component analysis to help identify key class-level landscape metrics for forests at different hierarchical levels, namely, open pine, upland pine, and forest as a whole. We found that the key class-level landscape metrics varied across different hierarchical levels. Compared with forest as a whole, open pine forest is much more fragmented. The landscape metric, such as CONTIG_MN, which measures whether pine patches are contiguous or not, is more important to characterize the spatial pattern of pine forest than to forest as a whole. This suggests that different metric sets should be used to characterize landscape patterns at different hierarchical levels. We further used these key metrics, along with the total class area, to classify and evaluate subwatersheds through cluster analysis. This study demonstrates a promising approach that can be used to integrate spatial patterns and processes for hierarchical forest landscape planning and management.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

References

  • Ambrose CE (2001) Remnants of a forest: mapping and inventory of ground cover in the Red Hills region of South Georgia and North Florida. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson PF (1979) Analysis of landscape character for visual resource management. In: Elsner GH, Smardon RC (technical coordinators) Proceedings of Our National Landscape: A conference on applied techniques for analysis and management of the visual resource, Incline Village, 23–25 April 1979. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-35. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Berkeley, pp 157–163

  • Bailey D, Billeter R, Aviron S, Schweiger O, Herzog F (2007a) The influence of thematic resolution on metric selection for biodiversity monitoring in agricultural landscapes. Landscape Ecology 22:461–473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey D, Herzog F, Augenstein I, Aviron S, Billeter R, Szerencsits E et al (2007b) Thematic resolution matters: Indicators of landscape pattern for European agro-ecosystems. Ecological Indicators 7:692–709

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin DJB, Weaver K, Schnekenburger F, Perera AH (2004) Sensitivity of landscape pattern indices to input data characteristics on real landscape: implications for their use in natural disturbance emulation. Landscape Ecology 19:255–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bastian O (2000) Landscape classification in Saxony (Germany)―a tool for holistic regional planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 50:145–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell S (2001) Landscape pattern, perception and visualization in the visual management of forests. Landscape and Urban Planning 54:201–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bian L (1997) Multiscale nature of spatial data in scaling up environmental models. In: Quattrochi DA, Goodchild MF (eds) Scale in remote sensing and GIS. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Botequilha Leitão A, Ahern J (2002) Applying landscape ecological concepts and metrics in sustainable landscape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 59:65–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brauchle PE, Azam MS (2004) Factorial invariance of the occupational work ethic inventory (OWEI). Journal of Vocational Education Research 29(2):121–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burel F, Baudry J (2003) Landscape ecology―concepts, methods, and applications. Science Publishers, Enfield

    Google Scholar 

  • Cain DH, Riitters K, Orvis K (1997) A multi-scale analysis of landscape statistics. Landscape Ecology 12:199–212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caratti JF, Nesser JA, Maynard CL (2004) Watershed classification using canonical correspondence analysis and clustering techniques: a cautionary note. Journal of the American Water Resources Association October: 1257–1268

  • Cifaldi RL, Allan JD, Duh JD, Brown DG (2004) Spatial patterns in land cover of exurbanizing watersheds in southeastern Michigan. Landscape and Urban Planning 66:107–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox J, Engstrom RT (2001) Influence of the spatial pattern of conserved lands on the persistence of a large population of red-cockaded woodpeckers. Biological Conservation 100:137–150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damschen EI, Haddad NM, Orrock JL, Tewksbury JJ, Levey DJ (2006) Corridors increase plant species richness at large scales. Science 313:1284–1286

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Detenbeck NE, Batterman SL, Brady VJ, Brazner JC, Snarski VM, Taylor DL et al (2000) A test of watershed classification systems for ecological risk assessment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19:1174–1181

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dramstad WE, Olson JD, Forman RTT (1996) Landscape ecology principles in landscape architecture and land-use planning. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Duerksen CJ, Elliott DL, Hobbs NT, Johnson E, Miller JR (1997) Habitat protection planning: Where the wild things are. In: Planning advisory service, Report. American Planning Association, Chicago, pp 470–471

  • Forman RTT, Godron M (1986) Landscape ecology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatewood S, Johnson KW, McWilliams RG (1994) A comprehensive study of a portion of the Red Hills Region of Georgia. The Thomas College Regional Resource Center, Thomasville

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith JA, Martinko EA, Price KP (2000) Landscape structure analysis of Kansas at three scales. Landscape and Urban Planning 52:45–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gustafson EJ (1998) Quantifying landscape spatial pattern: what is the state of the art? Ecosystems 1:143–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington Jr TB (2001) Pattern measurement and pattern classification in landscape ecology: a fuzzy set-based analysis of forest fragmentation. Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, Boston

  • Hedman CW, Grace SL, King SE (2000) Vegetation composition and structure of Southern Coastal Plain pine forests, an ecological comparison. Forest Ecology and Management 134:233–247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinimann A, Breu T, Kohler T (2005) Watershed classification in the lower Mekong Basin―rapid economic growth―a source of increasing potential for conflict over resource use. Mountain Research and Development 25(2):180–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog F, Lausch A (2001) Supplementing land-use statistics with landscape metrics: some methodological considerations. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 72:37–50

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall M (1980) Multivariate analysis. Macmillan, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Korth B, Tucker LR (1975) The distribution of chance congruence coefficients from simulated data. Psychometrika 40:361–368

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krzanowski WJ (2000) Principles of multivariate analysis—a user’s perspective (revised edition). Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Landers JL, Boyer WD (1999) An old-growth definition for upland longleaf and South Florida slash pine forests, woodlands, and savannas. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, General Technical Report, SRS-29. Southern Research Station, Asheville

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine MS (1977) Canonical analysis and factor comparison: quantitative applications in the social sciences series, no. 6. Sage, Thousand Oaks

    Google Scholar 

  • Lioubimtseva E, Defourny P (1999) GIS-based landscape classification and mapping of European Russia. Landscape and Urban Planning 44:63–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu J, Taylor WW (2002) Coupling landscape ecology with natural resource management: Paradigm shits and new approaches. In: Liu J, Taylor WW (eds) Integrating landscape ecology into natural resource management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Löfman S, Kouki J (2003) Scale and dynamics of a transforming forest landscape. Forest Ecology and Management 175:247–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, McComb WC (1995) Relationships between landscape structure and breeding birds in the Oregon Coast Range. Ecological Monographs 65:235–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Neel MC, Ene E (2002) FRAGSTATS: Spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps. Available at: http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html. Accessed 10 March 2011

  • Mladenoff DJ, Niemi GJ, White MA (1997) Effects of changing landscape pattern and U.S.G.S. land cover data variability on ecoregion discrimination across a forest-agriculture gradient. Landscape Ecology 12:379–396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neel MC, McGarigal K, Cushman SA (2004) Behavior of class-level landscape metrics across gradients of class aggregation and area. Landscape Ecology 19:435–455

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill RV, DeAngelis DL, Waide JB, Allen TFH (1986) A hierarchical concept of ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Otero Pastor I, Casermeiro Martinez MA, Ezquerra Canalejoa A, Esparcia Mariño P (2007) Landscape evaluation: comparison of evaluation methods in a region of Spain. Journal of Environmental Management 85(1):204–214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Outcalt KW, Sheffeld RM (1996) The longleaf pine forest: trends and current conditions. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Resource Bulletin SRS-9. Southern Research Station, Asheville

    Google Scholar 

  • Pattee HH (1973) Hierarchy theory: the challenge of complex systems. Braziller, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Riitters KH, O’Neill RV, Hunsaker CT, Wickham JD, Yankee DH, Timmins SP (1995) A factor analysis of landscape pattern and structure metrics. Landscape Ecology 10:23–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell PJ, Wolfe SL, Hertz PE, Starr C (2008) Biology: the dynamic science, vol 2. Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakamoto S, Kijima N, Tomoda A, Kambara M (1998) Factor structures of the Zung self-rating depression scale (SDS) for undergraduates. Journal of Clinical Psychology 54:477–487

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saura S (2004) Effects of remote sensor spatial resolution and data aggregation on selected fragmentation indices. Landscape Ecology 19:197–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saura S, Martínez-Millán J (2001) Sensitivity of landscape pattern metrics to map spatial extent. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 67(9):1027–1036

    Google Scholar 

  • Savitsky B, Ambrose C (2001) Remote sensing component-phase one: final report. In: Ambrose C (ed) Remnants of forest: mapping and inventory of ground cover in the Red Hills Region of South Georgia and North Florida. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler S, Poirazidis K, Wrbka T (2008) Towards a key set of landscape metrics for biodiversity assessments: a case study from Dadia National Park, Greece. Ecological Indicators 8:502–514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sisk TD, Savage M, Falk DA, Allen CD, Muldavin E, McCarthy P (2005) A landscape perspective for forest restoration. Journal of Forestry September: 319–320

  • Stanfield BJ, Bliss JC, Spies TA (2002) Land ownership and landscape structure: a spatial analysis of sixty-six Oregon (USA) Coast Range watersheds. Landscape Ecology 17:685–697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tall Timbers Research Station (2010) What is the Red Hills Region? Available at: http://www.talltimbers.org/lc-redhillsregion.html. Accessed 9 March 2011

  • Tinker DB, Resor CAC, Beauvais GP, Kipfmueller KF, Fernandes CI, Baker WL (1998) Watershed analysis of forest fragmentation by clearcuts and roads in a Wyoming forest. Landscape Ecology 13:149–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (1989) Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20:171–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG, O’Neill RV, Gardner RH, Milne BT (1989) Effects of changing spatial scale on the analysis of landscape pattern. Landscape Ecology 3:153–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Urban DL, O’Neill RV, Shugart HHJ (1987) Landscape ecology: a hierarchical perspective can help scientists understand spatial pattern. Bioscience 37:119–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Eetvelde V, Antrop M (2009) A stepwise multi-scaled landscape typology and characterization for trans-regional integration, applied on the federal state of Belgium. Landscape and Urban Planning 91(3):160–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallinger S (1995) A commitment to the future: AF&PA’s sustainable forestry initiative. Journal of Forestry 93(1):16–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Wigley TB, Sweeney JM (1993) Cooperative partnerships and the role of private landowners. In: Finch DM, Stangel PW (eds) Status and management of neotropical migratory birds. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-229. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, pp 39–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe SH, Reidenauer JA, Means DB (1988) An ecological characterization of the Florida Panhandle. United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington. Minerals Management Service, New Orleans

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J (2004) Effects of change scale on landscape pattern analysis: scaling relations. Landscape Ecology 19:125–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Gao W, Tueller PT (1997) Effects of changing spatial scale on the results of statistical analysis with landscape data: a case study. Geographic Information Sciences 3:30–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Jelinski DE, Luck M, Tueller PT (2000) Multiscale analysis of landscape heterogeneity: scale variance and pattern metrics. Geographic Information Sciences 6:6–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Shen W, Tueller PT (2002) Empirical patterns of the effects of changing scale on landscape metrics. Landscape Ecology 17:761–782

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The research reported in this paper was partially supported by Department of Geography, Florida State University and College of Health, Environment and Science, Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania. We thank Basil Savitsky, Christine Ambrose, Joe Noble, and Jim Cox for their assistance in field-based reference data collection and data processing and analysis. We also thank Frances James, James Elsner, Jon Anthony Stallins and Mark Horner for their help in this work. Acknowledgements are due to Shawn Lewers for providing computer support, Ann Johnson and Chengxia You for their help in interpreting aerial photos, Jean-Paul Calixte and Mary Litrico for providing hydrological data, and Stuart Jackson for providing the information about forests in the study area. Last, we thank the three anonymous referees for their time and effort in reviewing the earlier version of the manuscript, which helped improve its scholarly quality.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography, Geology, and the Environment, Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania, Slippery Rock, PA, 16057, USA

    Jialing Wang

  2. Department of Geography, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA

    Xiaojun Yang

Authors
  1. Jialing Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Xiaojun Yang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jialing Wang.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 10.

Table 10 Final selection of 28 class-level metrics
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wang, J., Yang, X. A Hierarchical Approach to Forest Landscape Pattern Characterization. Environmental Management 49, 64–81 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9762-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9762-9

Keywords

  • Landscape spatial pattern
  • Landscape classification
  • Landscape evaluation
  • Principal component analysis
  • Cluster analysis
  • The Red Hills region