Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Inputs of Nutrients and Fecal Bacteria to Freshwaters from Irrigated Agriculture: Case Studies in Australia and New Zealand

  • Published:
Environmental Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Increasing demand for global food production is leading to greater use of irrigation to supplement rainfall and enable more intensive use of land. Minimizing adverse impacts of this intensification on surface water and groundwater resources is of critical importance for the achievement of sustainable land use. In this paper we examine the linkages between irrigation runoff and resulting changes in quality of receiving surface waters and groundwaters in Australia and New Zealand. Case studies are used to illustrate impacts under different irrigation techniques (notably flood and sprinkler systems) and land uses, particularly where irrigation has led to intensification of land use. For flood irrigation, changes in surface water contaminant concentrations are directly influenced by the amount of runoff, and the intensity and kind of land use. Mitigation for flood irrigation is best achieved by optimizing irrigation efficiency. For sprinkler irrigation, leaching to groundwater is the main transport path for contaminants, notably nitrate. Mitigation measures for sprinkler irrigation should take into account irrigation efficiency and the proximity of intensive land uses to sensitive waters. Relating contaminant concentrations in receiving groundwaters to their dominant causes is often complicated by uncertainty about the subsurface flow paths and the possible pollutant sources, viz. drainage from irrigated land. This highlights the need for identification of the patterns and dynamics of surface and subsurface waters to identify such sources of contaminants and minimize their impacts on the receiving environments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

Notes

  1. Additional information has been obtained from the Southern Rural Water website (www.srw.com.au) and following links to the Macalister irrigation district. Accessed 18 Sep 2009.

References

  • Adams JA, Pattinson JM (1985) Nitrate leaching losses under a legume-based crop rotation in Central Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 28:101–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Albus WL, Knighton RE (1998) Water quality in a sand plain after conversion from dryland to irrigation: tillage and cropping systems compared. Soil and Tillage Research 48:195–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen RB, McIntosh PD, Wilson JB (1997) The distribution of plants in relation to pH and salinity on inland saline/alkaline soils in Central Otago, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 35:517–523

    Google Scholar 

  • ANZECC (2000) Australian and New Zealand guidelines for fresh and marine water quality, Vol 1 and 2. Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Aqualinc (2006) Snapshot of water allocation in New Zealand. Report No. ME782, Ministry for the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand, 64 p

  • Austin NR, Prendergast JB, Collins MD (1996) Phosphorus losses in irrigation runoff from fertilized pasture. Journal of Environmental Quality 25:63–68

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006) Australia’s environment issues and trends 2006. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra, 102 p

  • Australian Bureau of Statistics (2008) Water use on Australian farms 2006–07. http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02006-07?OpenDocument. Accessed 2 July 2009

  • Bandaragoda C, Tarboton DG, Woods R (2004) Application of TOPNET in the distributed model intercomparison project. Journal of Hydrology 298:178–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow K, Nash D, Turral H, Grayson R (2003) Phosphorus uptake and release in surface drains. Agricultural Water Management 63:109–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow K, Nash D, Hannah M, Robertson F (2007) The effect of fertilizer and grazing on nitrogen export in surface runoff from rain-fed and irrigated pastures in south-eastern Australia. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 77:69–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bidwell V, Pang L (2003) Groundwater contamination. In: Robb C (ed) Effects of rural land use on water quality, chap 4. Report prepared for Ministry for the Environment, Wellington

    Google Scholar 

  • Burt CM, Clemmens AJ, Strelkoff TS, Solomon K, Bliesner RD, Hardy LA, Howell TA, Eisenhauer DE (1997) Irrigation performance measures – efficiency and uniformity. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering ASCE 123:423–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bush BJ, Austin NR (2001) Timing of phosphorus fertilizer application within an irrigation cycle for perennial pasture. Journal of Environmental Quality 30:939–946

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Camargo JA, Alonso A, Salamanca A (2005) Nitrate toxicity to aquatic animals: a review with new data for freshwater invertebrates. Chemosphere 58:1255–1267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casey FXM, Derby N, Knighton RE, Steele DD, Stegman EC (2002) Initiation of irrigation effects on temporal nitrate leaching. Vadose Zone Journal 1:300–309

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Causapé J, Quílez D, Aragüés R (2006) Irrigation efficiency and quality of irrigation return Flows in the Ebro River Basin: an overview. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 117:451–461

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavero J, Beltran A, Aragüés R (2003) Nitrate exported in drainage waters of two sprinkler-irrigated watersheds. Journal of Environmental Quality 32:916–926

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Close M, Dann R, Ball A, Pirie R, Savill M, Smith Z (2008) Microbial groundwater quality and its health implications for a border-strip irrigated farm catchment, South Island, New Zealand. Journal of Water and Health 6:83–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Close M, Noonan M, Hector R, Bright J (2010) Microbial transport from dairying under two spray irrigation systems in Canterbury, New Zealand. Journal of Environmental Quality 39:824–833

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clothier BE, Green SR (1994) Rootzone processes and the efficient use of irrigation water. Agricultural Water Management 25:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins R, Rutherford K (2004) Modelling bacterial water quality in streams draining pastoral land. Water Research 38:700–712

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • CSIRO (2008) Water availability in the Goulburn-Broken. A report to the Australian Government from the CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin Sustainable Yields Project. CSIRO, Canberra 132 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Davoren A Scott D (2005) Schedule WQN9 revision. Technical report U05/15 Investigations and Monitoring group, Environment Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. 21 p. http://ecan.govt.nz/publications/Reports/report-schedule-wqn9-revision-000505-web.pdf. Accessed 23 November 2009

  • Di HJ, Cameron KC (2002) Nitrate leaching in temperate agroecosystems: sources, factors and mitigating strategies. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 46:237–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Di HJ, Cameron KC, Moore S, Smith NP (1998) Nitrate leaching from dairy shed effluent and ammonium fertilizer applied to a free-draining pasture soil under spray or flood irrigation. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 41:263–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doak M (2005) Value of irrigation in New Zealand. In: OECD Workshop on agriculture and water: sustainability, markets and policies, 14–18 Nov 2005, Adelaide

  • Döll P (2002) Impact of climate change and variability on irrigation requirements: a global perspective. Climate Change 54:269–293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edkins R (2006) Irrigation efficiency gaps—review and stock take. Report no L05264/2 prepared for the sustainable farming fund and irrigation New Zealand. Aqualinc Research Ltd, Christchurch 39 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott AH, Alexander RB, Schwartz GE, Shankar U, Sukias JPS, McBride GB (2005) Estimation of nutrient sources and transport for New Zealand using the hybrid mechanistic-statistical model SPARROW. Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand) 44:1–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada (2005) Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life: nitrate ion. Ecosystem Health: Science-based Solutions Report 1–6, Ottawa, 115 p

  • EPA (1995) Protecting water quality in Central Gippsland. Schedule F5–Waters of the Latrobe and Thomson River basins and Merriman Creek catchment and draft policy impact assessment. EPA Victoria, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • EPA (2003) Macalister irrigation district dairy farms. Publication no. 912. EPA Victoria, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • Feehan P, Tennant W (2008) The Goulburn Broken water quality strategy 10 years on. In: Proceedings of the 12th international conference on integrated diffuse pollution management (IWA DIPCON 2008), Khon Kaen, Thailand, 25–29 Aug 2008

  • Flemmer CL, Flemmer RC (2007) Water use by New Zealand dairy farms, 1997–2000. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 50:479–489

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton AJ, Boland A, Stevens D, Kelly J, Radcliff J, Ziehrl A, Dillon P, Paulin B (2005) Position of the Australian horticultural industry with respect to the use of reclaimed water. Agricultural Water Management 71:181–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson CR (2002) Nitrate concentrations in Canterbury groundwater—a review of existing data. Report no. R02/17. Environment Canterbury, Christchurch

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart BT (2004) Environmental risks associated with new irrigation schemes in Northern Australia. Ecological Management and Restoration 5:106–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes RJ, Francis GS (1990) Effects of mixed cropping farming systems on changes in soil properties on the Canterbury Plains. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 14:73–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Haywood SA, Hanson CR (2004) Nitrate contamination of groundwater in the Ashburton-Rakaia plains. Report no. R04/9. Environment Canterbury, Christchurch

    Google Scholar 

  • Heng LK, White RE, Bolan NS, Scotter DR (1991) Leaching losses of major nutrients from a mole-drained soil under pasture. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 34:325–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Houlbrooke DJ, Horne DJ, Hedley MJ, Hanly JA, Snow VO (2004) A review of literature on the land treatment of farm-dairy effluent in New Zealand and its impact on water quality. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 47:499–511

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kienzle WS, Schmidt J (2008) Hydrological impacts of irrigated agriculture in the Manuherikia Catchment, Otago, New Zealand. Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand) 47(2):67–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Klocke NL, Watts DG, Schneekloth JP, Davison DR, Todd RW, Parkhurst AM (1999) Nitrate leaching in irrigated corn and soybean in a semi-arid climate. Transactions of the American Society of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers 42:1621–1630

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kottek M, Grieser J, Beck C, Rudolf B, Rubel F (2006) World map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorologische Zeitschrift 15:259–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb S, Smith G (2009) Shepparton irrigation region drain nutrients annual review 2007/08. Goulburn-Murray Water Document No. 2546632, February 2008, Tatura

  • Ledgard SF, Penno JW, Sprosen MJ, Brier JG (1996) Impact of rate of nitrogen fertiliser application on nitrate leaching from grazed dairy pasture. In: Currie LD, Loganathan P (eds) Recent developments in understanding chemical movement in soils: significance in relation to water quality and efficiency of fertiliser use. Occasional Report No. 9. Fertiliser and Lime Research Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, pp 45–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Magesan GH, White RE, Scotter DR (1996) Nitrate leaching from a drained, sheep-grazed pasture. I. Experimental results and environmental implications. Australian Journal of Soil Research 34:55–67

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matson PA, Parton WJ, Power AG, Swift MJ (1997) Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science 277:504–509

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDowell RW, Sharpley AN, Condron LM, Haygarth PM, Brookes PC (2001) Processes controlling soil phosphorus release to runoff and implications for agricultural management. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 59:269–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDowell RW, Biggs BJF, Sharpley AN, Nguyen L (2004) Connecting phosphorus loss from agricultural landscapes to surface water quality. Chemistry and Ecology 20:1–40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Monaghan RM, Paton RJ, Smith LC, Binet C (2000) Nutrient losses in drainage and surface runoff from a cattle-grazed pasture in Southland. Proceedings of the New Zealand Grassland Association 62:99–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Monaghan RM, Wilcock RJ, Smith LC, Tikkisetty B, Thorrold BS, Costall D (2007) Linkages between land management activities and water quality in an intensively farmed catchment in southern New Zealand. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 118:211–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monaghan RM, Carey PL, Wilcock RJ, Drewry JJ, Houlbrooke DJ, Thorrold BS (2009) Linkages between land management activities and stream water quality in the Waikakahi catchment, south Canterbury. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 129:201–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris M, Lynne V (2006) Measuring and conserving irrigation water. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, National Center for Appropriate Technology, Butte

    Google Scholar 

  • Nandapi D, Chester D, Moore K, Rivers M, Kuzich R (2008) Changing irrigation systems and management in the Harvey Irrigation Area. Final report Feb 2006. Land and water Australia. http://lwa.gov.au/node/2317. Accessed 10 September 2009

  • Nash D, Savage G, Clemow L, Webb B (2003) Macalister research farm water balance report. Department of Primary Industries, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • Nash D, Webb B, Hannah M, Adeljou S, Toifl M, Barlow K, Robertson F, Roddick F, Porter N (2007) Changes in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in soils, soil water and surface run-off following grading of irrigation bays used for intensive grazing. Soil Use and Management 23:374–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • New Zealand Meteorological Service (1979) Rainfall parameters for stations in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. New Zealand Meteorological Service Miscellaneous Publication 163, Wellington

  • Nguyen ML, Goh KM (1994) Sulphur cycling and its implications on sulphur fertilizer requirements of grazed grassland ecosystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 49:173–206

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ORC (2006) The effect of irrigation runoff on water quality. Otago Regional Council, Dunedin

    Google Scholar 

  • PCE (2004) Growing for good: intensive farming, sustainability and New Zealand’s environment. Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, Wellington

    Google Scholar 

  • Pote DH, Daniel TC, Nichols DJ, Sharpley AN, Moore PA Jr, Miller DM, Edwards DR (1999) Relationship between phosphorus levels in three ultisols and phosphorus concentrations in runoff. Journal of Environmental Quality 28:170–175

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn JM, Wilcock RJ, Monaghan RM, McDowell RW, Journeaux PR (2009) Grassland farming and water quality in New Zealand. Tearmann: Irish Journal of Agri-environmental Research 7:69–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen PR, Ziegler AC (2003) Comparison and continuous estimates of fecal coliform and Escherichia Coli in selected Kansas streams, May 1999 through April 2002. Water-Resources Investigations Report 03-4056. U.S. Geological Survey, Lawrence

  • Rivers MR, Clark MF (2003) Harvey Irrigation Area collaborative water quality monitoring project final report. Prepared for Harvey Water by the Department of Agriculture. Western Australia, Perth

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivers MR, Davies P, Smettem K (in review) An assessment of regional surface water quality in the Harvey Irrigation Area—implications for regional sustainability. Irrigation and Drainage

  • Robertson D, Wang QJ, Soste L, Chaffe R (2007) Irrigation futures of the Goulburn Broken catchment. Final report—scenarios of the future: Irrigation in the Goulburn Broken Region. Department of Primary Industries Future Farming Systems research Division, Tatura

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen MR (2001) Hydrochemistry of New Zealand’s aquifers. In: Rosen MR, White PA (eds) Groundwaters of New Zealand. New Zealand Hydrological Society Inc., Wellington, pp 77–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruz-Jerez BE, White RE, Ball PR (1995) A comparison of nitrate leaching under clover-based pastures and nitrogen-fertilized grass grazed by sheep. The Journal of Agricultural Science 125:361–369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiklomanov IA (ed) (1997) Comprehensive assessment of the freshwater resources of the world: assessment of water resources and water availability in the world. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva RG, Cameron KC, Di HJ, Hendry T (1999) A lysimeter study of the impact of cow urine, dairy shed effluent and nitrogen fertilizer on drainage water quality. Australian Journal of Soil Research 37:357–369

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SKM (2000) Surface water quality and quantity modelling for the Macalister irrigation district and downstream areas. Sinclair Knight Merz Pty Ltd., Armadale

    Google Scholar 

  • Southern Rural Water (2007) MID 2030 discussion paper. Southern Rural Water, Maffra. http://www.srw.com.au/Files/General_publications/MID2030_Discussion_Paper.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2009

  • Strange EM, Fausch KD, Covich A (1999) Sustaining ecosystem services in human dominated watersheds: biohydrology and ecosystem processes in the South Platte river basin. Environmental Management 24:39–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D (1999) Global environmental impacts of agricultural expansion: the need for sustainable and efficient practices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96:5995–6000

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tockner K, Pennetzdorfer D, Reiner N, Schiemer F, Ward JV (2001) Hydrological connectivity, and the exchange of organic matter and nutrients in a dynamic river–floodplain system (Danube, Austria). Freshwater Biology 41:521–535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trout TJ (2000) Environmental effects of irrigated agriculture. Acta Hortculturae 537:605–610

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2004) Guidelines for drinking water quality, 3rd edn., vol 1, Recommendations. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcock RJ (1986) Agricultural runoff: a source of water pollution in New Zealand? New Zealand Agricultural Science 20(2):98–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilcock RJ, Monaghan RM, Thorrold BS, Meredith AS, Betteridge K, Duncan MJ (2007) Land-water interactions in five contrasting dairying catchments: issues and solutions. Land Use and Water Resources Research 7:2.1–2.10

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter TC, Harvey JW, Franke OL, Alley WM (1998) Ground water and surface water a single resource 1139. US Geological Survey Circular, Denver

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for useful information on the Waikakahi catchment from David Houlbrooke (AgResearch Ltd.), and for flow data for Thompson Creek and Sow Burn provided by Matt Dale (Otago Regional Council). We greatly appreciate the constructive criticism provided by the anonymous reviewers of our manuscript. This work was funded by the New Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, Sustainable Water Programme (Contract C01X0308).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, PO Box 11-115, Hamilton, 3251, New Zealand

    Robert J. Wilcock

  2. Department of Primary Industries, 1301 Hazeldean Road, Ellinbank, VIC, 3821, Australia

    David Nash

  3. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, PO Box 8602, Christchurch, New Zealand

    Jochen Schmidt & Scott T. Larned

  4. Centre of Excellence for Ecohydrology, School of Environmental Systems Engineering, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia

    Mark R. Rivers

  5. Feehan Consulting Pty Ltd., 84 Balaclava Rd., Shepparton, VIC, 3630, Australia

    Pat Feehan

Authors
  1. Robert J. Wilcock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David Nash
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jochen Schmidt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Scott T. Larned
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mark R. Rivers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Pat Feehan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert J. Wilcock.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wilcock, R.J., Nash, D., Schmidt, J. et al. Inputs of Nutrients and Fecal Bacteria to Freshwaters from Irrigated Agriculture: Case Studies in Australia and New Zealand. Environmental Management 48, 198–211 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9644-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9644-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation