Skip to main content

Towards a Duty of Care for Biodiversity

Environmental Management volume 45, pages 682–696 (2010)Cite this article

Abstract

The decline in biodiversity is a worldwide phenomenon, with current rates of species extinction more dramatic than any previously recorded. Habitat loss has been identified as the major cause of biodiversity decline. In this article we suggest that a statutory duty of care would complement the current mix of policy options for biodiversity conservation. Obstacles hindering the introduction of a statutory duty of care include linguistic ambiguity about the terms ‘duty of care’ and ‘stewardship’ and how they are applied in a natural resource management context, and the absence of a mechanism to guide its implementation. Drawing on international literature and key informant interviews we have articulated characteristics of duty of care to reduce linguistic ambiguity, and developed a framework for implementing a duty of care for biodiversity at the regional scale. The framework draws on key elements of the common law ‘duty of care’, the concepts of ‘taking reasonable care’ and ‘avoiding foreseeable harm’, in its logic. Core elements of the framework include desired outcomes for biodiversity, supported by current recommended practices. The focus on outcomes provides opportunities for the development of innovative management practices. The framework incorporates multiple pathways for the redress of non-compliance including tiered negative sanctions, and positive measures to encourage compliance. Importantly, the framework addresses the need for change and adaptation that is a necessary part of biodiversity management.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

References

  • ABC (Australian Broadcasting Commission) (2007) John Howard talks about Peter Costello’s comments. Accessed online: http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2007/s1983192.htm

  • Andrew M, Jarvis T, Howard B, McLeod G, Robinson S, Standen R, Toohey D, Williams A (2007) The Environmental Stewardship System (ESS): a generic system for assuring rural environmental performance. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47:245–259

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker JH (1990) An introduction to English legal history, 3rd edn. Butterworths, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Bates G (2001) A duty of care for the protection of biodiversity on land. Consultancy Report to the Productivity Commission, AusInfo, Canberra

  • Bates G (2006) Environmental law in Australia, 6th edn. Butterworths, Sydney

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett AF, Haslem A, Cheal DC, Clarke MF, Jones RN, Koehn JD, Lake PS, Lumsden LF, Lunt ID, Mackey BG, Mac Nally R, Menkhorst PW, New TR, Newell GR, O’Hara T, Quinn GP, Radford JQ, Robinson D, Watson JEM, Yen AL (2009) Ecological processes: a key element in strategies for nature conservation. Ecological Management & Restoration 10:192–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beynon N, Kennedy M, Graham A (2005) Grumpy Old Greenies—lament waiting lists, wasted opportunities and wayward pork barrelling in Australia’s biodiversity programs. http://www.hsi.org.au/editor/assets/admin/Grumpy_Old_Greenies.pdf. Accessed online 16 May 2009

  • Binning C, Young M (1997) Motivating people: using management agreements to conserve remnant vegetation. Management and Conservation of Remnant Vegetation, Research Report 1. Prepared for the National Research and Development Program on Rehabilitation, Canberra

  • Bowers J (1999) Policy instruments for the conservation of remnant vegetation on private land. Biological Conservation 87:327–339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bracken LJ, Oughton EA (2006) ‘What do you mean?’ The importance of language in developing interdisciplinary research. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 31:371–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite J (2002) Restorative justice and responsive regulation. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 314 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • BRS (Bureau of Rural Sciences) (2006) Land use in Australia—at a glance. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryden J, Hart K (2000) Land reform, planning and people: an issue of stewardship. In: RSE/SNH millennium conference on the future for the environment in Scotland—resetting the agenda? The Arkleton Centre for Rural Development Research, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland

  • Burgman MA (2005) Risks and decisions for conservation and environmental management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 488 pp

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Burgman MA, Keith D, Hopper SD, Widyatmoko D, Drill C (2007) Threat syndromes and conservation of the Australian flora. Biological Conservation 134:73–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carey JM, Burgman MA (2008) Linguistic uncertainty in qualitative risk analysis and how to minimize it. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1128:13–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carr A (2002) Grass roots and green tape: principles and practices of environmental stewardship. Federation Press, Canberra, 268 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Clifton C, McGregor C, Standen R, Fritsch S (2004) Current recommended practice directory for broadacre dryland agriculture. Murray-Darling Basin Commission, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Cocklin C, Dibden J, Mautner N (2006) From market to multifunctionality? Land stewardship in Australia. The Geographical Journal 172:197–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cocklin C, Mautner N, Dibden J (2007) Public policy, private landholders: perspectives on policy mechanisms for sustainable land management. Journal of Environmental Management 85:986–998

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Collins D, Scoccimarro M (2008) Market-based instruments decision support tool. Market Based Instruments Capacity Building Program (part of Market Based Instruments Pilot Program and the National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality). Department of Natural Resources and Water, Brisbane

  • Context P/L (2008) Conservation Management Networks Victoria strategic plan. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • Cork SJ, Sattler P, Alexandra J (2006) ‘Biodiversity’ theme commentary prepared for the 2006 Australian State of the Environment Committee. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtis A, MacKay J, Van Nouhuys M, Lockwood M, Byron I, Graham M (2000) Exploring landholder willingness and capacity to manage dryland salinity: the Goulburn Broken Catchment. Johnstone Centre Report No. 138. Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW

  • Davies BB, Hodge I (2006) Farmers’ preferences for new environmental policy instruments: determining the acceptability of cross compliance for biodiversity benefits. Journal of Agricultural Economics 57:393–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de la Crétaz A, Barten PK (2007) Chapter 7: Forest conversion to agriculture. In: Land use effects on streamflow and water quality in the northeastern United States. CRC/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, Florida, pp 171–208

  • Defenders of Wildlife (2000) The public in action: using state citizen suits statutes to protect biodiversity. Washington, DC

  • Defenders of Wildlife (2006) Incentives for Biodiversity Conservation: an ecological and economic assessment. Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, DC

  • DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2006) e-Digest Statistics about: land use and land cover. Accessed online: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/land/lduse.htm

  • DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2007) Guide to cross compliance in England and management of habitats and landscape features: guidance for cross compliance in England. Accessed online: http://www.rpa.gov.uk/rpa/index.nsf/7801c6143933bb248025713f003702eb/8fc58c8fa4fd8d70802573b600441cc5!OpenDocument

  • Dey I (1993) Qualitative data analysis: a user-friendly guide for social scientists. Routledge, London, 285 pp

  • DNRM (Department of Natural Resources, Mines) (2003) B7-Rights and responsibilities in property: “there is nothing new under the sun”. Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Queensland, Brisbane

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobbs TL, Pretty J (2008) Case study of agri-environmental payments: the United Kingdom. Ecological Economics 65:765–775

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donald PF, Green RE, Heath MF (2001) Agricultural intensification and the collapse of Europe’s farmland bird populations. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 268:25–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donald PF, Pisano G, Rayment MD, Pain DJ (2002) The Common Agricultural Policy, EU enlargement and the conservation of Europe’s farmland birds. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 89:167–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doremus H (2003) A policy portfolio approach to biodiversity protection on private lands. Environmental Science and Policy 6:217–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dovers S (2005) Environment and sustainability policy: creation, implementation, evaluation. The Federation Press, Sydney, p 196

    Google Scholar 

  • Driesen DM (2003) The economic dynamics of environmental law. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 268 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • EAC (Environmental Audit Committee) (2008) Halting biodiversity loss. Environmental Audit Committee, House of Commons, England, London

  • Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries (2006) Duty. In: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edn. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston

  • Farrelly M, Conacher A (2007) Integrated, Regional, Natural Resource and Environmental Planning and the Natural Heritage Trust Phase 2: a case study of the Northern Agricultural Catchments Council, Western Australia. Australian Geographer 38:309–333

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer J, Manning AD, Steffen W, Rose DB, Daniell K, Felton A, Garnett S, Gilna B, Heinsohn R, Lindenmayer DB, MacDonald B, Mills F, Newell B, Reid J, Robin L, Sherren K, Wade A (2007) Mind the sustainability gap. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22:621–624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey BS (1997) Not just for the money: an economic theory for personal motivation. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, p 156

    Google Scholar 

  • Groom MJ, Meffe GK, Carroll CR (2006) Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates Inc, Sunderland, MA, 779 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunningham N, Grabosky P (1998) Smart regulation: designing environmental policy. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 494 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington C, Curtis A, Black R (2008) Locating communities in natural resource management. Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning 10:199–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison K (2001) Voluntarism and environmental governance. In: Parson EA (ed) Governing the environment: persistant challenges, uncertain innovations. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, pp 207–246

  • Hatfield Dodds S (2004) The catchment care principle: a practical approach to achieving equity, ecosystem integrity and sustainable land use. Waterscapes. Accessed online: http://www.water.org.au/pubs/pub11_dodds.htm

  • HRSCEH (House of Representatives Standing Committee on the Environment) (2001) Public good conservation: our challenge for the 21st century. House of Representatives Standing Committee on the Environment, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, 217 pp

  • Industry Commission (1998) A full repairing lease: Inquiry into ecologically sustainable land management. Industry Commission, Report no. 60, AGPS, Canberra

  • Illical M, Harrison K (2007) Protecting endangered species in the US and Canada: the role of negative lesson drawing. Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique 40:367–394

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr M (2002) Tort based climate change litigation in Australia. Discussion paper prepared for the Climate Change Litigation Forum. Australian Conservation Foundation, London

  • Lerner S (1993) The importance of active earthkeeping. In: Lerner S (ed) Environmental stewardship studies in active earthkeeping. University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Department of Geography Publication Series No 39. Ontario, pp 3–8

  • Lindenmayer D, Hobbs RJ, Montague-Drake R, Alexandra J, Bennett A, Burgman M, Cale P, Calhoun A, Cramer V, Cullen P, Driscoll D, Fahrig L, Fischer J, Franklin J, Haila Y, Hunter M, Gibbons P, Lake S, Luck G, MacGregor C (2008) A checklist for ecological management of landscapes for conservation. Ecology Letters 11:78–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubowski RN, Vesterby M, Bucholtz S, Baez A, Roberts MJ (2006) Major uses of land in the United States, 2002. Economic information bulletin number 14. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Luntz H, Hambly D (1995) Torts: cases and commentary, 4th edn. Butterworths, Sydney

    Google Scholar 

  • Macnamara D (2004) Stewardship. Banff Executive Leadership News, vol 17. Accessed online: http://www.banffexeclead.com/Newsletter04/newsletterIssue17.html

  • Martin EA, Law J (2006) Duty of care. Oxford Dictionary of Law. Oxford Reference Online, Oxford University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin P, Bartel R, Sinden J, Gunningham N, Hannam I (2007) Developing a good regulatory practice model for environmental regulations impacting on farmers. Research Report. Australian Farm Institute, Surry Hills, Australia

  • Martin P, Verbeek M (2006) Sustainability strategy. The Federation Press, Sydney, 275 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • McGlade J (2009) Status of European biodiversity. In: Conference ‘Biodiversity Protection—Beyond 2010’, Athens

  • MDBC (Murray Darling Basin Commission) (1996) Cost-sharing for on-ground works. Murray Darling Basin Commission, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Merriam-Webster Online (2006) Stewardship. Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary

  • Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of Law (1996) Duty of care. Retrieved December 04, 2006, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/duty

  • Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NECMA (North East Catchment Management Authority) (2005) North East native vegetation plan. North East Catchment Management Authority, Wodonga

    Google Scholar 

  • Novacek MJ, Cleland EE (2001) The current biodiversity extinction event: scenarios for mitigation and recovery. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:5466–5470

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nygh PE, Butt P (1997) Butterworths Australian legal dictionary. Butterworths, Sydney, 1344 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • OBPR (Office of Best Practice Regulation) (2008) Reviews of regulation. Office of Best Practice Regulation, Department of Finance and Deregulation, Canberra

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver I, Jones H, Schmoldt DL (2007) Expert panel assessment of attributes for natural variability benchmarks for biodiversity. Austral Ecology 32:1–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrom E (1990) Governing the Commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 280 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxford English Dictionary Online (2007) Steward. Oxford English Dictionary Online, Oxford University Press, Oxford

  • Pannell DJ, Marshall GR, Barr N, Curtis A, Vanclay F, Wilkinson R (2006) Understanding and promoting adoption of conservation practices by rural landholders. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46:1407–1424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkes D, Newell G, Cheal D (2003) Assessing the quality of native vegetation: the ‘habitat hectares’ approach. Ecological Management & Restoration 4:S29–S38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peel J (2005) The precautionary principle in practice. Federation Press, Melbourne, 244 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson DC (2006) Precaution: principles and practice in Australian environmental and natural resource management. In: Presidential address, 50th Annual Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society Conference, Manly, New South Wales, 8–10 February 2006

  • Possingham H, Wilson K, Andelman SJ, Vynne CH (2006) Protected areas: goals, limitations and design. In: Groom MJ, Meffe GK, Carroll CR (eds) Principles of conservation biology, 3rd edn. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA, pp 509–551

    Google Scholar 

  • Pressey B (2004) Conservation and planning for biodiversity: assembling the best data for the job. Conservation Biology 18:1677–1681

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pressey RL, Cabeza M, Watts ME, Cowling RM, Wilson KA (2007) Conservation planning in a changing world. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22:583–592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Productivity Commission (2004) Impacts of native vegetation and biodiversity regulations. Productivity Commission, Report No. 29, Melbourne

  • Roberts BR (1992) Land care manual. New South Wales University Press, Kensington, NSW

    Google Scholar 

  • Seale C (2003) Discussion of ‘Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: a framework for assessing research evidence’. A framework for assessing research evidence. Research Seminar organised by the Cabinet Office and the ESRC Research Methods programme. National Centre for Social Research, London

  • Silverman D (2006) Interpreting qualitative data: methods for analysing talk, text and interaction, 3rd edn. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA

  • SSCECA (Senate Standing Committee on Environment Communications and the Arts) (2009) The operation of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, First Report. Senate Standing Committee on Environment Communications and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra

  • Stankey GH, Shindler BA (2006) Formation of social acceptability judgments and their implications for management of rare and little-known species. Conservation Biology 20:28–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoneham G, Crowe M, Platt S, Chaudri V, Soligo J, Strappazzon L (2000) Mechanisms for biodiversity conservation on private land. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • The Heinz Center (2008) The State of the Nation’s Ecosystems 2008: Measuring the lands, wWaters, and living resources of the United States. Highlights Report. The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment, Washington, DC

  • Thomas CD, Cameron A, Green RE, Bakkenes M, Beaumont LJ, Collingham YC, Erasmus BFN, de Siqueira MF, Grainger A, Hannah L, Hughes L, Huntley B, Van Jaarsveld AS, Midgley GF, Miles L, Ortega-Huerta MA, Peterson AT, Phillips OL, Williams S (2004) Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427:145–148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations (1992) Convention on biological diversity. Treaty Series, No. 30619, Rio de Janeiro

  • University of Ottawa (2007) Legal systems of the world. University of Ottawa, Ottawa. Accessed online at http://www.droitcivil.uottawa.ca/world-legal-systems/eng-monde.php

  • VAGO (Victorian Auditor-General’s Office) (2009) Administration of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. Victorian Auditor-General’s Office, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • VCMC (Victorian Catchment Management Council) (2007) Catchment condition report 2007. Victorian Catchment Management Council, Melbourne

  • VCMC/DSE (Victorian Catchment Management Council/Department of Sustainability, Environment) (2003) Ecosystem services through land stewardship practices: Issues and options. Victorian Catchment Management Council/Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace KJ (2007) Classification of ecosystem services: problems and solutions. Biological Conservation 139:235–246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young M, Shi T, Crosthwaite J (2003) Duty of care: an instrument for increasing the effectiveness of catchment management. Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeller M (1999) Stewardship of land: an investigation into the state of the art. The INNW Fund, Menlo Park, California, 26 pp

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Our thanks go to the many people whose ideas and comments have infused this article, including interviewees and participants in workshops discussing duty of care, held at the Department of Sustainability, Melbourne in April 2007 and September 2008. Associate Professor Ian Lunt, School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt University engaged in valuable discussions about the interface between the duty of care framework and ecological processes. Gabrielle Lyndon, Librarian at the Productivity Commission in Melbourne, very graciously allowed us electronic access to public submission documents. We are very grateful to the two reviewers whose comments and suggestions have greatly improved this article. This research is supported by a post-graduate scholarship from the Future Farm Industries Cooperative Research Centre.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Institute for Land, Water & Society, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW, 2640, Australia

    G. Earl, A. Curtis & C. Allan

  2. Future Farm Industries Co-operative Research Centre, Nedlands, WA, Australia

    G. Earl & A. Curtis

Authors
  1. G. Earl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. Curtis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. C. Allan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to A. Curtis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Earl, G., Curtis, A. & Allan, C. Towards a Duty of Care for Biodiversity. Environmental Management 45, 682–696 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9444-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9444-z

Keywords

  • Duty of care
  • Stewardship
  • Biodiversity
  • Policy instruments
  • Australia