Skip to main content

Optimal Policies for Aggregate Recycling from Decommissioned Forest Roads

Environmental Management volume 42, pages 297–309 (2008)Cite this article

Abstract

To mitigate the adverse environmental impact of forest roads, especially degradation of endangered salmonid habitat, many public and private land managers in the western United States are actively decommissioning roads where practical and affordable. Road decommissioning is associated with reduced long-term environmental impact. When decommissioning a road, it may be possible to recover some aggregate (crushed rock) from the road surface. Aggregate is used on many low volume forest roads to reduce wheel stresses transferred to the subgrade, reduce erosion, reduce maintenance costs, and improve driver comfort. Previous studies have demonstrated the potential for aggregate to be recovered and used elsewhere on the road network, at a reduced cost compared to purchasing aggregate from a quarry. This article investigates the potential for aggregate recycling to provide an economic incentive to decommission additional roads by reducing transport distance and aggregate procurement costs for other actively used roads. Decommissioning additional roads may, in turn, result in improved aquatic habitat. We present real-world examples of aggregate recycling and discuss the advantages of doing so. Further, we present mixed integer formulations to determine optimal levels of aggregate recycling under economic and environmental objectives. Tested on an example road network, incorporation of aggregate recycling demonstrates substantial cost-savings relative to a baseline scenario without recycling, increasing the likelihood of road decommissioning and reduced habitat degradation. We find that aggregate recycling can result in up to 24% in cost savings (economic objective) and up to 890% in additional length of roads decommissioned (environmental objective).

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • Allison C, Sidle RC, Tait D (2004) Application of decision analysis to forest road deactivation in unstable terrain. Environmental Management 33(2):173–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson AE, Nelson JD, D’Eon RG (2006) Determining optimal road class and road deactivation strategies using dynamic programming. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36(6):1509–1518

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown C, Sessions J (1999) Variable tire pressure for tropical forests? A synthesis of concepts and applications. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 11(2):380–400

    Google Scholar 

  • Eschenbach EA, Teasley R, Diaz C, Madej MA (2005) Decision support for road decommissioning and restoration using genetic algorithms and dynamic programming. In: Redwood Science Symposium: what does the future hold? USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-GTR-194

  • Flanagan SA, Furniss MJ, Ledwith TS, Thiesen S, Love M, Moore K, Ory J (1998) Methods for inventory and environmental risk assessment of road drainage crossings. USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Region, San Dimas, CA, 45 pp

  • Foltz R, Burroughs E (1991) A test of normal tire pressure and reduced tire pressures on forest roads: sedimentation effects. In: Proceedings, forestry and environmental solutions, ASAE, New Orleans, pp 103–112

  • Foltz R, Truebe M (2003) Locally available aggregate and sediment production. Transportation Research Record 1819, Paper No. LVR8-1050

  • Forman RTT, Alexander LE (1998) Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29:207–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furniss MJ, Roelofs TD, Yee CS (1991) Road construction and maintenance. Influences of forest and rangeland management on salmonid fishes and their habitats. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 19. Bethesda, MD, pp 297–323

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallo K, Lanigan SH, Eldred P, Gordon SN, Moyer C (2005) Northwest forest plan: the first 10 years (1994–2003). Preliminary assessment of the condition of watersheds. General technical report PNW-GTR-647. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon

  • Girvetz E, Shilling F (2003) Decision support for road system analysis and modification on the Tahoe National Forest. Environmental Management 32(2):218–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gucinski H, Furniss MJ, Ziemer RR, Brookes MH (2001) Forest roads: a synthesis of scientific information. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-509. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR

  • Harr RD, Nichols RA (1993) Stabilizing forest roads to help restore fish habitats: a northwest Washington example. Fisheries 18:18–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heller D (2002) A new paradigm for salmon and watershed restoration. In: Proceedings of the 13th international salmonid enhancement workshop: 16–19 September 2002, Hotel Westport, Westport, Co. Mayo, Ireland

  • Hicks BJ, Hall JD, Bisson PA, Sedell JR (1991) Responses of salmonids to habitat changes. In: Meehan WR (ed) Influences of forest and rangeland management on salmonid fishes and their habitats, Ch. 14. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 19. Bethesda, MD, pp 483–518

  • Jones JA, Swanson FJ, Wemple BC, Snyder KU (2000) Effects of roads on hydrology, geomorphology, and disturbance patches in stream networks. Conservation Biology 14(1):76–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby M, Lowe RJ (1975) Optimal policies for transporting rock to low-volume roads. Low volume roads, Special Report 160. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, pp 296–301

  • Kolka RK, Smidt MF (2004) Effects of forest road amelioration techniques on soil bulk density, surface runoff, sediment transport, soil moisture and seedling growth. Forest Ecology and Management 202:313–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luce CH, Black TA (1999) Sediment production from forest roads in western Oregon. Water Resources Research 35(8):2561–2570

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luce CH, Rieman BE, Dunham JB, Clayton JL, King JG, Black TA (2001) Incorporating aquatic ecology into decisions on prioritization of road decommissioning. Water Resources Impact 3:8–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Lugo AE, Gucinski H (2000) Function, effects, and management of forest roads. Forest Ecology and Management 133:249–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madej MA (2001) Erosion and sediment delivery following removal of forest roads. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 26:175–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madej MA, Eschenbach EA, Diaz C, Teasley R, Baker K (2006) Optimization strategies for sediment reduction practices on roads in steep, forested terrain. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 31:1643–1656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcombe CP, MacDonald DD (1991) Effects of suspended sediments on aquatic ecosystems. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 11:72–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeves GH, Williams JE, Burnett KM, Gallo K (2006) The aquatic conservation strategy of the northwest forest plan. Conservation Biology 20(2):319–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid LM, Dunne T (1984) Sediment Production from Forest Road Surfaces. Water Resources Research 20(11):1753–1761

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sample VA, Price W, Donnay JS, Mater CM (2007) National Forest Certification Study. Pinchot Institute for Conservation. http://www.pinchot.org/current_projects/forest_cert/certification

  • Sessions J, Boston K, Thoreson R, Mills K (2006) Optimal policies for managing aggregate resources on temporary forest roads. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 21(4):207–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Switalski TA, Bissonette JA, DeLuca TH, Madej MA (2004) Benefits and impacts of road removal. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2(1):21–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson M, Tomberlin D (2005) Erosion control on logging roads. Institute for Operations Research and Management Sciences (INFORMS) 2005 Annual Meeting: Ecologies. Economies and Operations Research, San Francisco, CA

  • Tomberlin D, Baxter WT, Ziemer RR, Thompson M (2002) Logging roads and aquatic habitat protection in the California redwoods. Poster. 2002 SAF National Convention, 5–9 October 2002, Winston-Salem, NC. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/rsl/projects/water/Tomberlin.pdf

  • Trombulak SC, Frissell CA (2000) Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14:18–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver W, Hagans D (1999) Storm-Proofing Forest Roads. In: Proceedings of the international mountain logging and 10th Pacific Northwest Skyline Symposium, Oregon State University, Department of Forest Engineering and International Union of Forestry Research Organizations, Corvallis, OR. March 28–April 1, 1999, pp 230–245

  • Weaver W, Hagans D (2007) Road upgrading, decommissioning and maintenance—estimating costs on small and large scales. http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st5/Salmon_Workshop/10_Weaver_and_Hagans.pdf (Last accessed: 12-22-2007)

  • USDA Forest Service (1999) Roads analysis: informing decisions about managing the national forest transportation system. Misc. Rep. FS-643. Washington DC

  • USDA Forest Service (2001) Road management policy website. http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/road_mgt/policy.shtml

  • USDA Forest Service (2002) Road management website. http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/road_mgt/overview.shtml

Download references

Acknowledgments

Numerous individuals contributed to this article, for which we are grateful. We would like to thank two anonymous reviewers, Randy Foltz of the USDA Forest Service, and the associate editor for their constructive and helpful comments. We would also like to thank Jennie Cornell of the Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Mark Karr from the Umpqua National Forest, and Tom Kollasch from the Nature Conservancy for providing data from real-world instances of aggregate recycling. Tom Erkert and Mark Truebe of the USDA Forest Service provided invaluable insight into the opportunities for aggregate recycling on national forests. Dave Young of the OSU Research Forest office provided helpful information regarding road management on the McDonald-Dunn Forest. The primary author completed work on this article while a graduate student at Oregon State University as a recipient of the Wes and Nancy Lematta Fellowship and the Dorothy M. Hoener Fellowship.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State University, 204 Peavy Hall, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA

    Matthew Thompson & John Sessions

Authors
  1. Matthew Thompson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John Sessions
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Matthew Thompson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thompson, M., Sessions, J. Optimal Policies for Aggregate Recycling from Decommissioned Forest Roads. Environmental Management 42, 297–309 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9136-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9136-0

Keywords

  • Aggregate recycling
  • Transportation planning
  • Forest roads
  • Aquatic habitat
  • Road decommissioning
  • Watershed restoration
  • Mixed integer programming
  • Optimization