Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Improving the Urban Stream Restoration Effort: Identifying Critical Form and Processes Relationships

  • Published:
Environmental Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Stream restoration projects are often based on morphological form or stream type and, as a result, there needs to be a clear tie established between form and function of the stream. An examination of the literature identifies numerous relationships in naturally forming streams that link morphologic form and stream processes. Urban stream restoration designs often work around infrastructure and incorporate bank stabilization and grade control structures. Because of these imposed constraints and highly altered hydrologic and sediment discharge regimens, the design of urban channel projects is rather unclear. In this paper, we examine the state of the art in relationships between form and processes, the strengths and weaknesses of these existing relationships, and the current lack of understanding in applying these relationships in the urban environment. In particular, we identify relationships that are critical to urban stream restoration projects and provide recommendations for future research into how this information can be used to improve urban stream restoration design. It is also suggested that improving the success of urban restoration projects requires further investigation into incorporating process-based methodologies, which can potentially reduce ambiguity in the design and the necessity of using an abundant amount of in-stream structures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Literature Cited

  • InstitutionalAuthorNameASCE Task Committee on Hydraulics, Bank Mechanics, Modeling of River Width Adjustment (1998a) ArticleTitleRiver width adjustment: I: processes and mechanisms Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 124 881–902

    Google Scholar 

  • InstitutionalAuthorNameASCE Task Committee on Hydraulics, Bank Mechanics, Modeling of River Width Adjustment (1998b) ArticleTitleRiver width adjustment: II: modeling Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 124 903–917

    Google Scholar 

  • M. B. Arthur (1936) Fish stream improvement handbook U.S. Forest Service Washington, D.C. 30

    Google Scholar 

  • D. A. Beatty (1984) ArticleTitleDiscussion of ‘Channel migration and incision on the Beatton River’? Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 110 1681–1682

    Google Scholar 

  • D. B. Booth (1990) ArticleTitleStream-channel incision following drainage-basin urbanization Water Resources Bulletin 26 407–417

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Brice (1973) Meandering pattern of the White River in Indiana—an analysis M. Morisawa (Eds) Fluvial geomorphology State University of New York Binghomton New York 178–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Brice, J. C. 1981. Stability of relocated stream channels. Report No. FHWA/RD-80/158, Federal Highway Administration, Springfield, Virginia

  • Brice, J. C., and J. C. Blodgett. 1978. Countermeasures for hydraulic problems at bridges, vol. 1, analysis and assessment. Report No. FHWA-RD-78-162, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C

  • A. Brookes (1988) Channelized rivers John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Chichester, England

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. 2000. Urban stream restoration practices: an initial assessment. The Center for Watershed Protection, Elliot City, Maryland. Available at http://www.cwp.org (accessed April 2003)

  • M. A. Carson G. A. Griffiths (1987) ArticleTitleInfluence of channel width on bedload transport capacity Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 113 1489–1509

    Google Scholar 

  • H. H. Chang (1985) ArticleTitleRiver morphology and thresholds Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 111 503–519

    Google Scholar 

  • H. H. Chang (1992) Fluvial processes in river engineering Krieger Melbourne, Florida

    Google Scholar 

  • N. Chien Z. Wan (1999) Mechanics of sediment transport ASCE Press Reston, Virginia

    Google Scholar 

  • Coe, J. A., J. W. Godt, and A. J. Henceroth. 2002. Debris flows along interstate 70 corridor, Floyd Hill to the Arapahoe Basin ski area, central Colorado—a field trip guidebook. U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 02-398, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado. Available at http://geology.cr.usgs.gov (accessed June 2004)

  • Colby, B. R. 1964. Scour and fill in sand-bed streams. Professional Paper Number 462-D, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia

  • Copeland, R. R., D. N. McComas, C. R. Thorne, P. J. Soar, M. M. Jonas, and J. B. Fripp. 2001. Hydraulic design of stream restoration projects. Report ERDC/CHL TR-01-28, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi

  • Couto, A. 1998. Regional fisheries enhancement program annual report to the legislature, fiscal year 1997. Prepared by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife and the Citizen Advisory Board, Olympia, Washington. Available at http://wdfw.wa.gov/volunter/rfeg/rfeg1997.pdf (accessed June 2004)

  • Culbertson, D. M., L. E. Young, and J. C. Brice. 1967. Scour and fill in alluvial channels. Open File Report, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia

  • S. E. Darby C. R. Thorne (1996) ArticleTitleNumerical simulation of widening and bed deformation of straight sand rivers. I: model development Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 22 184–193

    Google Scholar 

  • W. M. Davis (1899) ArticleTitleThe geographical cycle Geographical Journal 14 481–504

    Google Scholar 

  • D. R. Dawdy (1967) ArticleTitleKnowledge of sedimentation in urban environments Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 93 235–245

    Google Scholar 

  • W.E. Dietrich J. W. Kirchner H. Ikeda F. Iseya (1989) ArticleTitleSediment supply and the development of the coarse surface layer in gravel-bedded rivers Nature 340 215–217 Occurrence Handle10.1038/340215a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • B. A. Doll D. E. Wise-Frederick C. M. Buckner S. D. Wilkerson W. A. Harman R. E. Smith J. Spooner (2002) ArticleTitleHydraulic geometry relationships for urban streams throughout the piedmont of North Carolina Journal of the American Water Resources Association 38 641–651

    Google Scholar 

  • P. W. Downs (1994) ArticleTitleCharacterization of river channel adjustments in the Thames basin, South-East England Regulated Rivers: Research and Management 9 151–175

    Google Scholar 

  • P. W. Downs (1996) River channel classification for channel management processes A. Gurnell (Eds) Changing river channels John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Chichester, England 347–366

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Dunne L. B. Leopold (1978) Water in environmental planning W.H. Freeman Co. San Francisco, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • B. K. Ferguson (1991) ArticleTitleUrban stream reclamation Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 46 324–328

    Google Scholar 

  • B. K. Ferguson P. W. Suckling (1990) ArticleTitleChanging rainfall-runoff relationships in the urbanizing Peachtree creek watershed, Atlanta, Georgia Water Resources Bulletin 26 313–322

    Google Scholar 

  • M. G. Foley (1978) ArticleTitleScour and fill in steep, sand bed ephemeral streams Geological Society of America Bulletin 89 559–570 Occurrence Handle10.1130/0016-7606(1978)89<559:SAFISS>2.0.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C. A. Frissell R. K. Nawa (1992) ArticleTitleIncidence and causes of physical failure of artificial habitat structures in streams of western Oregon and Washington North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12 182–197 Occurrence Handle10.1577/1548-8675(1992)012<0182:IACOPF>2.3.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galay, V. J., R. Kellerhals, and D. I. Bray. 1973. Diversity of river types in Canada. Pages 217–250 in Fluvial process and sedimentation. National Research Council of Canada

  • Gilbert, G. K. 1914. The transportation of debris by running water. Professional Paper 86, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia

  • W. L. Graf (1975) ArticleTitleThe impact of suburbanization on fluvial geomorphology Water Resources Research 11 690–692

    Google Scholar 

  • T. R. Hammer (1972) ArticleTitleStream channel enlargement due to urbanization Water Resources Research 8 1530–1540

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammer, T. R. 1973. Impact of urbanization on peak streamflow. Discussion paper series, no. 63, Regional Science Research Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

  • W. A. Harman G. D. Jennings J. M. Patterson D. R. Clinton L. O. Slate A. G. Jessup J. R. Everhart R. E. Smith (1999) Bankfull hydraulic geometry relationships for North Carolina streams D. S. Olsen J. P. Potyondy (Eds) Proceedings of the AWRA wildland hydrology summer symposium Bozeman Montana 401–408

    Google Scholar 

  • Harms, J. C., J. B. Southard, D. R. Spearing, and R. G. Walker. 1975. Depositional environments as interpreted from primary sedimentary structures and stratification sequences. Society for Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course 2, Tulsa, Oklahoma

  • J. K. Haschenburger (1999) ArticleTitleA probability model of scour and fill depths in gravel-bed channels Water Resources Research 35 2857–2869 Occurrence Handle10.1029/1999WR900153

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan, M. A.1990. Scour, fill, and burial depth of coarse material in gravel bed streams Earth surface processes and landforms. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chicester, England, vol 15, pp 15:341–355

  • W. C. Hession J. E. Pizzuto T. E. Johnson R. J. Horwitz (2003) ArticleTitleInfluence of bank vegetation on channel morphology in rural and urban watersheds Geology 31 147–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, M. O. 1979. TWINSPAN—a FORTRAN program for arranging multivariate data in an ordered two-way table by classification of the individuals and the attributes. Department of Ecology and Systematics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York

  • J. M. Hooke (1979) ArticleTitleAn analysis of the processes of river bank erosion Journal of Hydrology 42 39–62 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0022-1694(79)90005-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. E. Horton (1945) ArticleTitleErosional development of streams and their drainage basins: hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology Geological Society of America Bulletin 56 275–370

    Google Scholar 

  • A. M. Johnson J. R. Rodine (1984) Debris flow D. Brunsden (Eds) Slope instability John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Chichester, England 257–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellerhals, R., C. R. Neill, and D. I. Bray. 1972. Hydraulic and geomorphic characteristics of rivers in Alberta. Report 71-1 Research Council of Alberta River Engineering and Surface Hydrology, Alberta, Canada

  • R. Kellerhals M. Church D. I. Bray (1976) ArticleTitleClassification and analysis of river processes Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE 102 IssueIDHY7 813–829

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, H. R. 1971. Laboratory studies of alluvial river channel patterns. Ph.D. Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

  • D. Knighton (1984) Fluvial forms and processes Edward Arnold London, England

    Google Scholar 

  • D. Knighton (1998) Fluvial forms and processes: a new perspective Oxford University Press, Inc. New York

    Google Scholar 

  • G. M. Kondolf (1995a) ArticleTitleFive elements for effective evaluation of stream restoration Restoration Ecology 3 133–136

    Google Scholar 

  • G. M. Kondolf (1995b) ArticleTitleGeomorphological stream channel classification in aquatic habitat restoration: uses and limitations Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 5 127–141

    Google Scholar 

  • G. M. Kondolf (1998) ArticleTitleLessons learned from river restoration projects in California Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 8 39–52 Occurrence Handle10.1002/(SICI)1099-0755(199801/02)8:1<39::AID-AQC250>3.0.CO;2-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. M. Kondolf P. Downs (1996) Catchment approach to channel restoration A. Brookes (Eds) River channel restoration John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Chichester, England 129–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, E. W. 1957. A study of shape of channels formed by natural streams flowing in erodible material. Sediment Series No. 9, United States Army Engineer, Missouri River Division, Omaha, Nebraska

  • D. M. Lawler (1992) Process dominance in bank erosion systems P. Carling (Eds) Lowland floodplain rivers: Geomorphological perspectives Wiley Chichester, England 117–143

    Google Scholar 

  • L. B. Leopold (1973) ArticleTitleRiver channel change with time: an example Geological Society of America Bulletin 84 1845–1860 Occurrence Handle10.1130/0016-7606(1973)84<1845:RCCWTA>2.0.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • L. B. Leopold (1994) A view of the river Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts

    Google Scholar 

  • Leopold, L. B., and T. Maddock. 1953. The hydraulic geometry of stream channels and some physiographic implications. Professional paper no. 252, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C

  • Leopold, L. B., and M. G. Wolman. 1957. River channel patterns: braided, meandering, and straight. Professional paper 282-B, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia

  • May, C. W. 1998. The cumulative effects of urbanization on small streams in the Puget Sound lowland ecoregion. In PSWQA Puget Sound Research ‘98, Conference Proceedings, Seattle, Washington

  • F. A. Melton (1936) ArticleTitleAn empirical classification of flood-plain streams Geographical Review 26 593–609

    Google Scholar 

  • M. F. Merigliano (1997) ArticleTitleHydraulic geometry and stream channel behavior: an uncertain link Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33 1327–1336 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXovFWgsg%3D%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • A. D. Miall (1996) The geology of fluvial deposits: sedimentary facies, basin analysis, and petroleum geology Springer-Verlag New York

    Google Scholar 

  • J. R. Miller J. B. Ritter (1996) ArticleTitleDiscussion: an examination of the Rosgen classification of natural rivers Catena 27 295–299 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0341-8162(96)00017-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mollard, J. D. 1973. Air photo interpretation of fluvial features. Pages 341–380 in Proceedings of the 9th Canadian hydrology symposium: fluvial processes and sedimentation. Research Council of Canada

  • D. R. Montgomery J. M. Buffington (1997) ArticleTitleChannel-reach morphology in mountain drainage basins Geological Society of America Bulletin 109 596–611 Occurrence Handle10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0596:CRMIMD>2.3.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. Morisawa G. LaFlure (1979) Hydraulic geometry, stream equilibrium, and urbanization D. Rhodes (Eds) Adjustments of the fluvial system Kendall-Hunt Dubuque, Iowa 333–350

    Google Scholar 

  • M. P. Mosley (1987) The classification and characterization of rivers K. Richards (Eds) River channels, environment, and process Basil Blackwell Publishing Oxford, England 295–320

    Google Scholar 

  • G. C. Nanson J. C. Croke (1992) ArticleTitleA genetic classification of floodplains Geomorphology 4 459–486 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0169-555X(92)90039-Q

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. K. Nawa C. A. Frissell (1993) ArticleTitleMeasuring scour and fill of gravel streambeds with scour chains and sliding-bead monitors North American Journal of Fisheries Management 13 634–639 Occurrence Handle10.1577/1548-8675(1993)013<0634:MSAFOG>2.3.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. J. Neller (1988) ArticleTitleA comparison of channel erosion in small urban and rural catchments, Armidale, New South Wales Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 13 1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • G Parker (1976) ArticleTitleOn the cause and characteristic scales of meandering and braiding in rivers Journal of Hydrology 33 133–146 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0022-1694(77)90103-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. Parker (1979) ArticleTitleHydraulic geometry of active gravel rivers Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE 105 IssueIDHY9 1185–1201

    Google Scholar 

  • J. E. Pizzuto W. C. Hession M. McBride (2000) ArticleTitleComparing gravel-bed rivers in paired urban and rural catchments of southeastern Pennsylvania Geology 28 79–82 Occurrence Handle10.1130/0091-7613(2000)028<0079:CGBRIP>2.3.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • P. J. Raven P. Fox M. Everard N. T. H. Holmes F. H. Dawson (1997) River habitat survey: a new system for classifying rivers according to their habitat quality P. J. Boon and D. L. Howell (Eds) Freshwater quality: defining the indefinable? The Stationary Office Edinburgh, Scotland 215–234

    Google Scholar 

  • D., Rhodes (1977) ArticleTitleThe b-f-m diagram: graphical representation and interpretation of at-a-station hydraulic geometry American Journal of Science 273 877–896

    Google Scholar 

  • A. L. Riley (1998) Restoring streams in cities Island Press Washington, D.C

    Google Scholar 

  • D. L. Rosgen (1994) ArticleTitleA classification of natural rivers Catena 22 169–199 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0341-8162(94)90001-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D. L. Rosgen (1996) Applied river morphology Wildland hydrology Pagosa Springs Colorado

    Google Scholar 

  • T. R. Schueler (1995) The architecture of urban stream buffers T. R. Schueler (Eds) The practice of watershed protection: techniques for protecting our nation’s streams, lakes, rivers, and estuaries The Center for Watershed Protection Elliott City, Maryland 225–233

    Google Scholar 

  • T. R. Schueler (2000) The importance of imperviousness T. R. Schueler (Eds) The practice of watershed protection: techniques for protecting our nation’s streams, lakes, rivers, and estuaries The Center for Watershed Protection Elliott City, Maryland 7–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumm, S. A. 1963. A tentative classification of alluvial river channels. Circular 477, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C

  • S. A. Schumm (1977) The fluvial system John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumm, S. A. 1981. Evolution and response of the fluvial system: sedimentological implications. Special publication no. 31, The Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists

  • D. A. Sear (1994) ArticleTitleRiver restoration and geomorphology Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 4 169–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Seehorn, M. E. 1992. Stream habitat improvement handbook. Technical Publication R8-TP 16, US Forest Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, Georgia, 60 pp

  • A. Simon (1989) ArticleTitleA model of channel response in disturbed alluvial channels Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 14 11–26

    Google Scholar 

  • D. B. Simons E. V. Richardson C. F. Nordin (1965) Sedimentary structures generated by flow in alluvial channels G. K. Middleton (Eds) Primary sedimentary structures and their hydrodynamic interpretation Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Tulsa, Oklahoma 34–52

    Google Scholar 

  • K. Strahler (1957) ArticleTitleQuantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 38 913–920

    Google Scholar 

  • A. S. Stratton (1985) Erosion control in urban river valleys: Toronto, Ontario in Soil erosion and conservation Soil Conservation Society of America Aekeny, Iowa 393–398

    Google Scholar 

  • D. M. Thompson (2002) ArticleTitleLong-term effect of in-stream habitat improvement structures on channel morphology along the Blackledge and Salmon Rivers, Connecticut, USA Environmental Management 29 250–265 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s00267-001-0069-0 Occurrence Handle11815827

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • W. D. Thornbury (1969) Principles of geomorphology EditionNumber2 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York

    Google Scholar 

  • C. R. Thorne (1982) Processes and mechanisms of river bank erosion R. D. Hey (Eds) Gravel-bed rivers Wiley Chichester, England 227–259

    Google Scholar 

  • C. R. Thorne (1997) Channel types and morphological classification C. R. Thorne (Eds) Applied fluvial geomorphology for river engineering and management John Wiley and Sons Inc. Chichester, England 175–222

    Google Scholar 

  • T. R. Thorne R. G. Allen A. Simon (1996) ArticleTitleGeomorphological river channel reconnaissance for river analysis, engineering and management Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 21 469–483

    Google Scholar 

  • C. R. Thorne J. Lewin (1979) Bank processes, bed material movement and planform development in a meandering river D. Rhodes (Eds) Adjustments of the fluvial system Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co. Dubuque, Iowa 117–137

    Google Scholar 

  • S. W. Trimbel (1997) ArticleTitleContribution of stream channel erosion to sediment yield from an urbanizing watershed Science 278 1442–1444 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.278.5342.1442 Occurrence Handle9367952

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • P. J. Whiting J. B. Bradley (1993) ArticleTitleA process-based classification system for headwater streams Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18 603–612

    Google Scholar 

  • D. N. Wilcock (1971) ArticleTitleInvestigation into the relations between bed-load transport and channel shape Geological Society of America Bulletin 82 2159–2175

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. P. 1987. Unit hydraulic geometry – an indicator of channel changes. Water Supply Paper 2330, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia

  • M. G. Wolman (1967) ArticleTitleA cycle of sedimentation and erosion in urban river channels Geografiska Annaler 49 385–395

    Google Scholar 

  • M. G. Wolman J. P. Miller (1960) ArticleTitleMagnitude and frequency of forces in geomorphic processes Journal of Geology 68 54–74

    Google Scholar 

  • K. J. Woolfe J. R. Balzary (1996) ArticleTitleFields in the spectrum of channel style Sedimentology 43 797–805

    Google Scholar 

  • C. T. Yang (1996) Sediment transport: theory and practice The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from the College of Engineering at the Pennsylvania State University during the completion of this research. We further extend our gratitude to Dr. Greg Jennings, Dr. Melinda Daniels, and in particular to Dr. William Hession for providing thorough and insightful comments that led to the improvement of this article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Ave., Department 3295, Laramie, Wyoming, 82071, USA

    Sue L. Niezgoda

  2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, 212 Sackett Building, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA

    Peggy A. Johnson

Authors
  1. Sue L. Niezgoda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Peggy A. Johnson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sue L. Niezgoda.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Niezgoda, S.L., Johnson, P.A. Improving the Urban Stream Restoration Effort: Identifying Critical Form and Processes Relationships. Environmental Management 35, 579–592 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-004-0088-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-004-0088-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation