Abstract
Male genitourinary neuroendocrine neoplasms (GU-NENs) are rare, without any definite imaging characteristics. The WHO classified neuroendocrine neoplasms in the 2016 classification of the tumors of the urinary tract and genital organs along with other GU tumors; however, no pathologic grading system is available as published for gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms. Often a multimodality approach using cross-sectional imaging techniques, such as molecular imaging and histopathology are implemented to arrive at the diagnosis. This article provides a review of the pathology and imaging features of the male GU-NENs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Rindi, G., et al., A common classification framework for neuroendocrine neoplasms: an International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and World Health Organization (WHO) expert consensus proposal. Mod Pathol, 2018. 31(12): p. 1770-1786.
Saleh, M., et al., New frontiers in imaging including radiomics updates for pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms. Abdom Radiol (NY), 2020.
Klimstra DS, K.G., La Rosa S, Rindi G., Classification of neuroendocrine neoplasms of the digestive system. In: WHO Classification of Tumours: Digestive System Tumours, 5th ed, WHO Classification of Tumours Editorial Board (Ed), International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2019(Lyon, 2019): p. 16.
La Rosa, S. and S. Uccella, Classification of neuroendocrine neoplasms: lights and shadows. Rev Endocr Metab Disord, 2020.
Moch, H., et al., The 2016 WHO Classification of Tumours of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs—Part A: Renal, Penile, and Testicular Tumours. European Urology, 2016. 70(1): p. 93-105.
Desai, H., S. Borges-Neto, and T.Z. Wong, Molecular Imaging and Therapy for Neuroendocrine Tumors. Curr Treat Options Oncol, 2019. 20(10): p. 78.
Duan, K. and O. Mete, Algorithmic approach to neuroendocrine tumors in targeted biopsies: Practical applications of immunohistochemical markers. Cancer Cytopathol, 2016. 124(12): p. 871-884.
Peczkowska, M., et al., Testing new susceptibility genes in the cohort of apparently sporadic phaeochromocytoma/paraganglioma patients with clinical characteristics of hereditary syndromes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 2013. 79(6): p. 817-23.
Albertelli, M., et al., Pathology Reporting in Neuroendocrine Neoplasms of the Digestive System: Everything You Always Wanted to Know but Were Too Afraid to Ask. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 2021. 12: p. 680305.
Kaufmann, O. and M. Dietel, Expression of thyroid transcription factor-1 in pulmonary and extrapulmonary small cell carcinomas and other neuroendocrine carcinomas of various primary sites. Histopathology, 2000. 36(5): p. 415-20.
Chen, J.F., et al., Expression of novel neuroendocrine marker insulinoma-associated protein 1 (INSM1) in genitourinary high-grade neuroendocrine carcinomas: An immunohistochemical study with specificity analysis and comparison to chromogranin, synaptophysin, and CD56. Pathol Res Pract, 2020. 216(6): p. 152993.
Guo, C.C., et al., TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusion in small cell carcinoma of the prostate. Hum Pathol, 2011. 42(1): p. 11-7.
Nguyen, A.H., et al., Natural History of Renal Neuroendocrine Neoplasms: A NET by Any Other Name? Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 2020. 11: p. 624251.
Hansel, D.E., et al., Renal carcinoid tumor: a clinicopathologic study of 21 cases. Am J Surg Pathol, 2007. 31(10): p. 1539-44.
Shehabeldin, A.N. and J.Y. Ro, Neuroendocrine tumors of genitourinary tract: Recent advances. Ann Diagn Pathol, 2019. 42: p. 48-58.
Korkmaz, T., et al., Primary renal carcinoid: treatment and prognosis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol, 2013. 87(3): p. 256-64.
Kim, S.S., et al., Carcinoid tumor associated with adjacent dysplastic columnar epithelium in the renal pelvis: A case report and literature review. Pathol Int, 2016. 66(1): p. 42-6.
Ramkumar, S., et al., Ectopic insulin secreting neuroendocrine tumor of kidney with recurrent hypoglycemia: a diagnostic dilemma. BMC Endocr Disord, 2014. 14: p. 36.
Lane, B.R., et al., Renal neuroendocrine tumours: a clinicopathological study. BJU Int, 2007. 100(5): p. 1030-5.
Fine, S.W., Neuroendocrine lesions of the genitourinary tract. Adv Anat Pathol, 2007. 14(4): p. 286-96.
Yi, Z., et al., Clinicopathologic Features and Survival Outcomes for Primary Renal Neuroendocrine Neoplasms. Clin Genitourin Cancer, 2020.
Romero, F.R., et al., Primary carcinoid tumors of the kidney. J Urol, 2006. 176(6 Pt 1): p. 2359-66.
Jeung, J.A., et al., Primary renal carcinoid tumors: clinicopathologic features of 9 cases with emphasis on novel immunohistochemical findings. Hum Pathol, 2011. 42(10): p. 1554-61.
Posfai, B., et al., The Colorful Palette of Neuroendocrine Neoplasms in the Genitourinary Tract. Anticancer Res, 2018. 38(6): p. 3243-3254.
Mazzucchelli, R., et al., Neuroendocrine tumours of the urinary system and male genital organs: clinical significance. BJU Int, 2009. 103(11): p. 1464-70.
Shimbori, M., et al., Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the kidney with cardiac metastasis: a case report. J Med Case Rep, 2017. 11(1): p. 297.
Kouba, E. and L. Cheng, Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Urinary Bladder According to the 2016 World Health Organization Classification: Molecular and Clinical Characteristics. Endocr Pathol, 2016. 27(3): p. 188-99.
Rodriguez Pena, M.D.C., et al., Well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors of the lower urinary tract: biologic behavior of a rare entity. Hum Pathol, 2021. 109: p. 53–58.
Zheng, X., et al., Distinct genetic alterations in small cell carcinoma from different anatomic sites. Exp Hematol Oncol, 2015. 4: p. 2.
Fahed, E., et al., Small cell bladder cancer: biology and management. Semin Oncol, 2012. 39(5): p. 615-8.
Trias, I., et al., Small cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder. Presentation of 23 cases and review of 134 published cases. Eur Urol, 2001. 39(1): p. 85–90.
Boyer, A.C., et al., Neuroendocrine carcinoma of the urinary bladder: a retrospective study of CT findings. Abdom Imaging, 2013. 38(4): p. 870-6.
Asmis, T.R., et al., Genitourinary small cell carcinoma: a retrospective review of treatment and survival patterns at The Ottawa Hospital Regional Cancer Center. BJU Int, 2006. 97(4): p. 711-5.
Sekar, R.R., et al., Small cell bladder cancer: Treatment patterns and clinical outcomes. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 2020. 38(15_suppl): p. e17014-e17014.
Santamaria, L., et al., Stereologic estimation of the number of neuroendocrine cells in normal human prostate detected by immunohistochemistry. Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol, 2002. 10(3): p. 275-81.
Taher, A., et al., Imaging of Neuroendocrine Prostatic Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel), 2021. 13(22).
Aggarwal, R., et al., Clinical and Genomic Characterization of Treatment-Emergent Small-Cell Neuroendocrine Prostate Cancer: A Multi-institutional Prospective Study. J Clin Oncol, 2018. 36(24): p. 2492-2503.
Patel, G.K., N. Chugh, and M. Tripathi, Neuroendocrine Differentiation of Prostate Cancer-An Intriguing Example of Tumor Evolution at Play. Cancers (Basel), 2019. 11(10).
Deorah, S., et al., Survival of patients with small cell carcinoma of the prostate during 1973-2003: a population-based study. BJU Int, 2012. 109(6): p. 824-30.
Parimi, V., et al., Neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer: a review. Am J Clin Exp Urol, 2014. 2(4): p. 273-85.
Butler, W. and J. Huang, Neuroendocrine cells of the prostate: Histology, biological functions, and molecular mechanisms. Precis Clin Med, 2021. 4(1): p. 25-34.
Hu, J., B. Han, and J. Huang, Morphologic Spectrum of Neuroendocrine Tumors of the Prostate: An Updated Review. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 2020. 144(3): p. 320-325.
McCluggage, W.G., K. Kennedy, and K.J. Busam, An immunohistochemical study of cervical neuroendocrine carcinomas: Neoplasms that are commonly TTF1 positive and which may express CK20 and P63. Am J Surg Pathol, 2010. 34(4): p. 525-32.
Fine, S.W., Neuroendocrine tumors of the prostate. Mod Pathol, 2018. 31(S1): p. S122-132.
Chang, J.M., et al., Pictorial review: Unusual tumours involving the prostate: radiological-pathological findings. Br J Radiol, 2008. 81(971): p. 907-15.
Schaeffer, E., et al., NCCN Guidelines Insights: Prostate Cancer, Version 1.2021. J Natl Compr Canc Netw, 2021. 19(2): p. 134–143.
Hofman, M.S., et al., Prostate-specific membrane antigen PET-CT in patients with high-risk prostate cancer before curative-intent surgery or radiotherapy (proPSMA): a prospective, randomised, multicentre study. The Lancet, 2020. 395(10231): p. 1208-1216.
Usmani, S., et al., Molecular Imaging in Neuroendocrine Differentiation of Prostate Cancer: 68Ga-PSMA Versus 68Ga-DOTA NOC PET-CT. Clin Nucl Med, 2017. 42(5): p. 410-413.
Bonkhoff, H., Neuroendocrine differentiation in human prostate cancer. Morphogenesis, proliferation and androgen receptor status. Ann Oncol, 2001. 12 Suppl 2: p. S141–4.
Noordzij, M.A., et al., The prognostic influence of neuroendocrine cells in prostate cancer: results of a long-term follow-up study with patients treated by radical prostatectomy. Int J Cancer, 1995. 62(3): p. 252-8.
McWilliam, L.J., C. Manson, and N.J. George, Neuroendocrine differentiation and prognosis in prostatic adenocarcinoma. Br J Urol, 1997. 80(2): p. 287-90.
So, J.S., J. Gordetsky, and J.I. Epstein, Variant of prostatic adenocarcinoma with Paneth cell-like neuroendocrine differentiation readily misdiagnosed as Gleason pattern 5. Hum Pathol, 2014. 45(12): p. 2388-93.
Evans, A.J., et al., Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of prostate: a clinicopathologic summary of 7 cases of a rare manifestation of advanced prostate cancer. Am J Surg Pathol, 2006. 30(6): p. 684-93.
Altintas, S., et al., Small-cell carcinoma of the penile urethra: a case report and a short review of the literature. Ann Oncol, 2007. 18(4): p. 801-4.
Yoo, K.H., et al., Primary small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the female urethra. Pathol Int, 2009. 59(8): p. 601-3.
Reyes, A., et al., Neuroendocrine carcinomas (carcinoid tumor) of the testis. A clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of ten cases. Am J Clin Pathol, 2003. 120(2): p. 182–7.
Sharbidre, K.G. and M.E. Lockhart, Imaging of scrotal masses. Abdom Radiol (NY), 2020. 45(7): p. 2087-2108.
Zavala-Pompa, A., et al., Primary carcinoid tumor of testis. Immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and DNA flow cytometric study of three cases with a review of the literature. Cancer, 1993. 72(5): p. 1726–32.
Lubana, S.S., et al., Primary neuroendocrine tumor (carcinoid tumor) of the testis: a case report with review of literature. Am J Case Rep, 2015. 16: p. 328-32.
Lloyd RV, O.R., Kloppel G, Rosai J, WHO classification of tumours: pathology and genetics of tumours of endocrine organs. Lyon: IARC, 2017.
Alrezk, R., et al., Update of Pheochromocytoma Syndromes: Genetics, Biochemical Evaluation, and Imaging. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 2018. 9: p. 515.
Dahm, P. and J.E. Gschwend, Malignant non-urothelial neoplasms of the urinary bladder: a review. Eur Urol, 2003. 44(6): p. 672-81.
Bhalani, S.M., D.D. Casalino, and A.M. Manvar, Paraganglioma of the bladder. J Urol, 2011. 186(1): p. 279-80.
Purnell, S., et al., Genitourinary paraganglioma: Demographic, pathologic, and clinical characteristics in the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database (2000–2012). Urol Oncol, 2017. 35(7): p. 457 e9–457 e14.
Tischler, A.S. and R.R. deKrijger, 15 YEARS OF PARAGANGLIOMA: Pathology of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. Endocr Relat Cancer, 2015. 22(4): p. T123–33.
Nazar, E., et al., The Emerging Role of Succinate Dehyrogenase Genes (SDHx) in Tumorigenesis. Int J Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Res, 2019. 13(2): p. 72-82.
Muth, A., et al., Genetic testing and surveillance guidelines in hereditary pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. J Intern Med, 2019. 285(2): p. 187-204.
Turkova, H., et al., Characteristics and Outcomes of Metastatic Sdhb and Sporadic Pheochromocytoma/Paraganglioma: An National Institutes of Health Study. Endocr Pract, 2016. 22(3): p. 302-14.
Cheng, L., et al., Paraganglioma of the urinary bladder: can biologic potential be predicted? Cancer, 2000. 88(4): p. 844-52.
Carrasquillo, J.A., et al., Imaging of Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma. J Nucl Med, 2021. 62(8): p. 1033-1042.
Janssen, I., et al., Relevant Discordance Between 68Ga-DOTATATE and 68Ga-DOTANOC in SDHB-Related Metastatic Paraganglioma: Is Affinity to Somatostatin Receptor 2 the Key? Clin Nucl Med, 2017. 42(3): p. 211-213.
Chang, C.A., et al., (68)Ga-DOTATATE and (18)F-FDG PET/CT in Paraganglioma and Pheochromocytoma: utility, patterns and heterogeneity. Cancer Imaging, 2016. 16(1): p. 22.
Hamidi, O., Metastatic pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: recent advances in prognosis and management. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes, 2019. 26(3): p. 146-154.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sharbidre, K., Morani, A.C., Zahid, M. et al. Imaging of neuroendocrine neoplasms of the male GU tract. Abdom Radiol 47, 4042–4057 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-022-03510-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-022-03510-8