Abstract
The recovery operations following the 2001 attacks with Bacillus anthracis spores were complicated due to the unprecedented need for large-area surface sampling and decontamination protocols. Since this event, multiple reports have been published describing recovery efficiencies of several surface sampling materials. These materials include fibrous swabs of various compositions, cloth wipes, vacuum socks, and adhesive tapes. These materials have reported recovery efficiencies ranging from approximately 20% to 90% due to the many variations in their respective studies including sampling material, composition of surface sampled, concentration of contaminant, and even the method of deposition and sample processing. Additionally, the term recovery efficiency is crudely defined and could be better constructed to incorporate variations in contaminated surface composition and end user needs. While significant efforts in devising protocols for large-area surface sampling have been undertaken in the years since the anthrax attacks, there is still a general lack of consensus in optimal sampling materials and the methodology in which they are evaluated. Fortunately, sampling efforts are continuing to be supported, and the knowledge gaps in our procedures, methodology, and general understanding of sampling mechanisms are being investigated which will leave us better prepared for the future.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beecher DJ (2006) Forensic application of microbiological culture analysis to identify mail intentionally contaminated with Bacillus anthracis spores. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:5304–5310
Brown GS, Betty RG, Brockmann JE, Lucero DA, Souza CA, Walsh KS, Boucher RM, Tezak M, Wilson MC, Rudolph T, Lindquist HDA, Martinez KF (2007a) Evaluation of rayon swab surface sample collection method for Bacillus spores from nonporous surfaces. J Appl Microbiol 103:706–710
Brown GS, Betty RG, Brockmann JE, Lucero DA, Souza CA, Walsh KS, Boucher RM, Tezak M, Wilson MC (2007b) Evaluation of vacuum filter sock surface sample collection method for Bacillus spores from porous and non-porous surfaces. J Environ Monit 9:666–671
Brown GS, Betty RG, Brockmann JE, Lucero DA, Souza CA, Walsh KS, Boucher RM, Tezak M, Wilson MC, Rudolph T (2007c) Evaluation of a wipe surface sample method for collection of Bacillus spores from nonporous surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:706–710
Buttner MP, Cruz P, Stetzenbach LD, Klima-Comba AK, Stevens VL, Emanuel PA (2004) Evaluation of the Biological Sampling Kit (BiSkit) for large-area surface sampling. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:7040–7045
Edmonds J, Collett PJ, Valdes ER, Skowronski EW, Pellar GJ, Emanuel PA (2009) Surface sampling of spores in dry-deposition aerosols. Appl Environ Microbiol 75:39–44
Frawley D, Samaan MN, Bull RL, Robertson JM, Mateczun AJ, Turnbull PC (2008) Recovery efficiencies of anthrax spores and ricin from nonporous or nonabsorbent and porous or absorbent surfaces by a variety of sampling methods. J Forensic Sci 53:1102–1107
Hodges LR, Rose LJ, Peterson A, Noble-Wang J, Arduino MJ (2004) Evaluation of a macrofoam swab protocol for the recovery of Bacillus anthracis spores from a steel surface. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:4429–4430
Jernigan D, Raghunathan PL, Bell BP, Brechner R, Bresnitz EA et al (2002) Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg Infect Dis 8:1019–1028
Rose L, Jensen B, Peterson A, Banerjee SN, Arduino MJ (2007) Swab materials and Bacillus anthracis spore recovery from nonporous surfaces. Emerg Infect Dis 10:1023–1029
Sanderson WT, Hein MJ, Taylor L, Curwin BD, Kinnes GM, Seitz TA, Popovic T, Holmes HT, Kellum ME, McAllister SK, Whaley DN, Tupin EA, Walker T, Freed JA, Small DS, Klusaritz B, Bridges JH (2002) Surface sampling methods for Bacillus anthracis spore contamination. Emerg Infect Dis 8:1145–1151
Sanderson WT, Stoddard RR, Echt AS, Piacitelli CA, Kim D, Horan J, Davies MM, McCleery RE, Muller P, Schnorr TM, Ward EM, Hales TR (2004) Bacillus anthracis contamination and inhalational anthrax in a mail processing and distribution center. J Appl Microbiol 96:9
Yamaguchi N, Ishidoshiro A, YoshidaY ST, Senda S, Nasu M (2002) Development of an adhesive sheet for direct counting of bacteria on solid surfaces. J Microbiol Methods 53:405–410
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Edmonds, J.M. Efficient methods for large-area surface sampling of sites contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms and other hazardous agents: current state, needs, and perspectives. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 84, 811–816 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-009-2136-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-009-2136-z