Skip to main content
Log in

Essentials of trauma: head and spine

  • Review
  • Published:
Pediatric Radiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

References

  1. Schutzman SA, Greenes DS (2001) Pediatric minor head trauma. Ann Emerg Med 37:65–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Greenes DS, Schutzman SA (1999) Clinical indicators of intracranial injury in head-injured infants. Pediatrics 104:861–867

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT (1994) Pediatric head trauma. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 4:349–366

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Hachen HJ (1977) Spinal cord injury in children and adolescents: diagnostic pitfalls and therapeutic considerations in the acute stage. Paraplegia 15:55–64

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Kewalramani LS, Kraus JF, Sterling HM (1980) Acute spinal-cord lesions in a pediatric population: epidemiological and clinical features. Paraplegia 18:206–219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Hamilton MG, Myles ST (1992) Pediatric spinal injury: review of 61 deaths. J Neurosurg 77:705–708

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Osborn AG (1994) Craniocerebral trauma. In: Osborn AG (ed) Diagnostic neuroradiology, 1st edn. Mosby, Missouri, pp 199–244

    Google Scholar 

  8. Volpe JJ (1995) Injuries of extracranial, cranial, intracranial, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system structures. In: Volpe JJ (ed) Neurology of the newborn, 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 769–792

    Google Scholar 

  9. Poussaint TY, Moeller KK (2002) Imaging of pediatric head trauma. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 12:271–294

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Anton J, Pineda V, Martin C et al (1999) Posttraumatic subgaleal hematoma: a case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Emerg Care 15:347–349

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Barkovich AJ (2000) Brain and spine injuries in infancy and childhood. In: Barkovich AJ (ed) Pediatric neuroimaging, 3rd edn. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 157–249

    Google Scholar 

  12. Woodcock RJ, Davis PC, Hopkins KL (2001) Imaging of head trauma in infancy and childhood. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 22:16–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Towner D, Castro MA, Eby-Wilkens E (1999) Effect of mode of delivery in nulliparous women on neonatal intracranial injury. N Engl J Med 341:1709–1714

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Volpe JJ (1995) Intracranial hemorrhage: subdural, subarachnoid, intracerebellar, intraventricular (term infant) and miscellaneous. In: Volpe JJ (ed) Neurology of the newborn, 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 373–402

    Google Scholar 

  15. Gruskin KD, Schutzman SA (1999) Head trauma in children younger than 2 years: are there predictors for complications? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 153:15–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Medina LS (2000) Three-dimensional CT maximum intensity projections of the calvaria: a new approach for diagnosis of craniosynostosis and fractures. AJNR 21:1951–1954

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Ersahin Y, Mutluer S, Mirzai H et al (1996) Pediatric depressed skull fractures: analysis of 530 cases. Childs Nerv Syst 12:323–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Ersahin Y, Gulmen V, Palali I et al (2000) Growing skull fractures (craniocerebral erosion). Neurosurg Rev 23:139–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Choux M, Grisoli F, Peragut JC (1975) Extradural hematomas in children. 104 cases. Childs Brain 1:337–347

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Gentry LR (1996) Head trauma. In: Atlas SW (ed) Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and spine. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 611–647

    Google Scholar 

  21. Malek AM, Barnett FH, Schwartz MS (1997) Spontaneous rapid resolution of an epidural hematoma associated with an overlying skull fracture and subgaleal hematoma in a 17-month-old child. Pediatr Neurosurg 26:160–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Barkovich AJ, Atlas SW (1988) Magnetic resonance imaging of intracranial hemorrhage. Radiol Clin North Am 26:801–820

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Barlow CF (1984) CSF dynamics in hydrocephalus—with special attention to external hydrocephalus. Brain Dev 6:119–127

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Nickel RE, Gallenstein JS (1987) Developmental prognosis for infants with benign enlargement of the subarachnoid spaces. Dev Med Child Neurol 29:181–186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Papasian NC, Frim DM (2000) A theoretical model of benign external hydrocephalus that predicts a predisposition towards extra-axial hemorrhage after minor head trauma. Pediatr Neurosurg 33:188–193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Noguchi K, Ogawa T, Inugami A (1995) Acute subarachnoid hemorrhage: MR imaging with fluid-attenuated inversion recovery pulse sequences. Radiology 196:773–777

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Gentry LR, Thompson B, Godersky JC (1988) Trauma to the corpus callosum: MR features. AJNR 9:1129–1138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B (1988) MR imaging of head trauma: review of the distribution and radiopathologic features of traumatic lesions. AJR 150:663–672

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Unger EC, Cohen MS, Brown TR (1989) Gradient-echo imaging of hemorrhage at 1.5 Tesla. Magn Reson Imaging 7:163–172

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Adams JH, Graham DI, Murray LS (1982) Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: an analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol 12:557–563

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson BH (1989) Traumatic brain stem injury: MR imaging. Radiology 171:177–187

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT, Hackney DB (1986) Head injury: early results of comparing CT and high-field MR. AJR 147:1215–1222

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Ulug AM, Moore DF, Bojko AS et al (1999) Clinical use of diffusion-tensor imaging for diseases causing neuronal and axonal damage. AJNR 20:1044–1048

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Bešenski N (2002) Traumatic injuries: imaging of head injuries. Eur Radiol 12:1237–1252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Bruce DA, Alavi A, Bilaniuk L (1981) Diffuse cerebral swelling following head injuries in children: the syndrome of “malignant brain edema”. J Neurosurg 54:170–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Sharples PM, Matthews DS, Eyre JA (1995) Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in children with severe head injuries. Part 2: cerebrovascular resistance and its determinants. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 58:153–159

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Swischuk LE (2005) Emergency pediatric imaging: changes over the years (part I). Emerg Radiol 11:193–198

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Lustrin ES, Karakas SP, Ortiz AO et al (2003) Pediatric cervical spine: normal anatomy, variants, and trauma. Radiographics 23:539–560

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Khanna G, El-Khoury GY (2007) Imaging of cervical spine injuries of childhood. Skeletal Radiol 36:477–494

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hill SA, Miller CA, Kosnik EJ et al (1984) Pediatric neck injuries. A clinical study. J Neurosurg 60:700–706

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Bailey DK (1952) The normal cervical spine in infants and children. Radiology 59:712–719

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Hadley MN, Zabramski JM, Browner CM et al (1988) Pediatric spinal trauma. Review of 122 cases of spinal cord and vertebral column injuries. J Neurosurg 68:18–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Ehara S, el-Khoury GY, Sato Y (1988) Cervical spine injury in children: radiologic manifestations. AJR 151:1175–1178

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Sherk HH, Schut L, Lane JM (1976) Fractures and dislocations of the cervical spine in children. Orthop Clin North Am 7:593–604

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Lawson JP, Ogden JA, Bucholz RW et al (1987) Physeal injuries of the cervical spine. J Pediatr Orthop 7:428–435

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Osenbach RK, Menezes AH (1992) Pediatric spinal cord and vertebral column injury. Neurosurgery 30:385–390

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Tepas JJ 3rd, DiScala C, Ramenofsky ML et al (1990) Mortality and head injury: the pediatric perspective. J Pediatr Surg 25:92–95

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Baker C, Kadish H, Schunk JE (1999) Evaluation of pediatric cervical spine injuries. Am J Emerg Med 17:230–234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Shaffer MA, Doris PE (1981) Limitation of the cross table lateral view in detection of cervical spine injuries: a retrospective analysis. Ann Emerg Med 10:508–513

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Blahd WH Jr, Iserson KV, Bjelland JC (1985) Efficacy of the posttraumatic cross table lateral view of the cervical spine. J Emerg Med 2:243–249

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Yngve DA, Harris WP, Herndon WA et al (1988) Spinal cord injury without osseous spine fracture. J Pediatr Orthop 8:153–159

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Swischuk LE, John SD, Hendrick EP (2000) Is the open-mouth odontoid view necessary in children under 5 years? Pediatr Radiol 30:186–189

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Roche C, Carty H (2001) Spinal trauma in children. Pediatr Radiol 31:677–700

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Swischuk LE (2000) Emergency imaging of the acutely ill or injured child. In: Swischuk LE (ed) The spine and the spinal cord, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 532–587

    Google Scholar 

  55. Locke GR, Gardner JI, Van Epps EF (1966) Atlas-dens interval (ADI) in children: a survey based on 200 normal cervical spines. AJR 97:135–140

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Bonadio WA (1993) Cervical spine trauma in children. II. Mechanisms and manifestations of injury, therapeutic considerations. Am J Emerg Med 11:256–278

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Suss RA, Zimmerman RD, Leeds NE (1983) Pseudospread of the atlas: false sign of Jefferson fracture in young children. AJR 140:1079–1082

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Cattell HS, Filtzer DL (1965) Pseudosubluxation and other normal variations in the cervical spine in children. A study of 160 children. J Bone Joint Surg Am 47:1295–1309

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Swischuk LE (1977) Anterior displacement of C2 in children: physiologic or pathologic. Radiology 122:759–763

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Hall DE, Boydston W (1999) Pediatric neck injuries. Pediatr Rev 20:13–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Cattell HS, Filtzer DL (1965) Pseudosubluxation and other normal variations in the cervical spine in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am 47:1295–1309

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Bonadio WA (1993) Cervical spine trauma in children. I. General concepts, normal anatomy, radiographic evaluation. Am J Emerg Med 11:158–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Ogden JA (1984) Radiology of postnatal skeletal development. XI. The first cervical vertebra. Skeletal Radiol 12:12–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Glasser SA, Glasser ES (1991) Rare congenital anomalies simulating upper cervical spine fractures. J Emerg Med 9:331–335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Swischuk LE, Swischuk PN, John SD (1993) Wedging of C-3 in infants and children: usually a normal finding and not a fracture. Radiology 188:523–526

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Kewalramani L, Tori J (1980) Spinal cord trauma in children: neurologic patterns, radiologic features and pathomechanics of injury. Spine 5:11–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Dickman CA, Zabramski JM, Rekate HL et al (1993) Spinal cord injuries in children without radiographic abnormalities. West J Med 158:67–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kriss VM, Kriss TC (1996) SCIWORA (spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality) in infants and children. Clin Pediatr 35:119–124

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Akbarnia BA (1999) Pediatric spine fractures. Orthop Clin North Am 30:521–536

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Choi J, Hoffman H, Hendrick E (1986) Traumatic infarction of the spinal cord in children. J Neurosurg 65:608–610

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Grabb PA, Pang D (1994) Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality in children. Neurosurgery 35:406–414 (discussion 414)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Gossman W (1999) Fatal atlanto-occipital dislocation secondary to airbag deployment. Am J Emerg Med 17:741–742

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Pathria MN, Petersilge CA (1991) Spinal trauma. Radiol Clin North Am 29:847–865

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Maves CK, Souza A, Prenger EC et al (1991) Traumatic atlanto-occipital disruption in children. Pediatr Radiol 21:504–507

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Harris JH, Carson GC, Wagner LK (1994) Radiologic diagnosis of traumatic occipitovertebral dissociation. AJR 162:881–886

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Grabb BC, Frye TA, Hedlund GL et al (1999) MRI diagnosis of suspected atlanto-occipital dissociation in childhood. Pediatr Radiol 29:275–281

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Shamoun JM, Riddick L, Powell RW (1999) Atlantooccipital subluxation/dislocation: a “survivable” injury in children. Am Surg 65:317–320

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Judd DB, Liem LK, Petermann G (2000) Pediatric atlas fracture: a case of fracture through a synchondrosis and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 46:991–994

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Greene KA, Dickman CA, Marciano FF et al (1994) Transverse atlantal ligament disruption associated with odontoid fractures. Spine 19:2307–2314

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. El-Khoury GY, Kathol MH, Daniel WW (1995) Imaging of acute injuries of the cervical spine: value of plain radiography, CT, and MR imaging. AJR 164:43–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Harris J Jr (2001) The cervicocranium: its radiographic assessment. Radiology 218:337–351

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Cornelius RS (2001) Imaging of acute cervical spine trauma. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 22:108–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Jauregui N, Lincoln T, Mubarak S et al (1993) Surgically related upper cervical spine canal anatomy in children. Spine 18:1939–1944

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Muniz AE, Belfer RA (1999) Atlantoaxial rotary subluxation in children. Pediatr Emerg Care 15:25–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Vandemark RM (1990) Radiology of the cervical spine in trauma patients: practice pitfalls and recommendations for improving efficiency and communication. AJR 155:465–472

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Sherk HH, Nicholson JT, Chung SM (1978) Fractures of the odontoid process in young children. J Bone Joint Surg Am 60:921–924

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Shaw BA, Murphy KM (1999) Displaced odontoid fracture in a 9 month old child. Am J Emerg Med 17:73–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Fielding JW, Hensinger RN, Hawkins RJ (1980) Os odontoideum. J Bone Joint Surg Am 62:376–383

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Dai L, Yuan W, Ni B et al (2000) Os odontoideum: etiology, diagnosis, and management. Surg Neurol 53:106–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Harris JH Jr, Mirvis SE (1996) The radiology of acute cervical spine trauma. In: Mitchell CW (ed) Hyperextension injuries, 3rd edn. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 377–391

    Google Scholar 

  91. Effendi B, Roy D, Cornish B et al (1981) Fractures of the ring of the axis: a classification based on the analysis of 131 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br 63:319–327

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. McGrory BJ, Klassen RA, Chao EY et al (1993) Acute fractures and dislocations of the cervical spine in children and adolescents. J Bone Joint Surg Am 75:988–995

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Keiper MD, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT (1998) MRI in the assessment of the supportive soft tissues of the cervical spine in acute trauma in children. Neuroradiology 40:359–363

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Vaccaro AR, Madigan L, Schweitzer ME et al (2001) Magnetic resonance imaging analysis of soft tissue disruption after flexion–distraction injuries of the subaxial cervical spine. Spine 26:1866–1872

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Shanmuganathan K, Mirvis SE, Levine AM (1994) Rotational injury of cervical facets: CT analysis of fracture patterns with implications for management and neurologic outcome. AJR 163:1165–1169

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Handan Cakmakci.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Cakmakci, H. Essentials of trauma: head and spine. Pediatr Radiol 39 (Suppl 3), 391–405 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-009-1203-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-009-1203-z

Navigation