Abstract
Evidence of a genetic control of pain has led to efforts to exploit genotyping information from pain patients for the development of analgesics and for the selection of pharmacological approaches to pain. Research on translating the genetic bases of familial insensitivity to pain has contributed to the discovery of crucial molecular pathways of pain and to the identification of new analgesic targets (e.g., the Nav1.7 sodium channel, neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptors, nerve growth factor). Moreover, human genetic variants leading to enhanced or reduced function of specific molecular pathways are employed as substitutes for the lack of modulator molecules usable in humans, enabling nociceptive or anti-nociceptive pathways in humans to be studied before drug development. Translational approaches have also been used to verify the importance of experimentally discovered pain pathways in humans, such as GTP cyclohydrolase 1 and the potassium channel Kv9.1. In addition to these uses of genetics as a research tool, an individualized pharmacological therapy based on the patient’s genotype has been attempted. In terms of analgesics in clinical use, such an approach is at the present time only marginally available. For future analgesic targeting, for example, Nav1.7 or TRPA1, the genotype may be the target of a selective cure for syndromes caused by increased-function mutations in the coding genes. The consideration of human genetics in drug studies may accelerate analgesic drug development while reducing cost because the clinical success may be partly anticipated by including information of functional genetic variants that mimic the action of future analgesics. These developments show that genotyping information obtained from studies on pain patients plays a role in the clinical pharmacology of pain.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Godinova AM (1967) Phenotypic manifestations and genetic features of migraine. Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 67(7):1002–1007
Lötsch J, Geisslinger G (2010) A critical appraisal of human genotyping for pain therapy. Trends Pharmacol Sci 31:312–317
Lötsch J, Geisslinger G, Tegeder I (2009) Genetic modulation of the pharmacological treatment of pain. Pharmacol Ther 124(2):168–184
Lötsch J, Skarke C, Liefhold J, Geisslinger G (2004) Genetic predictors of the clinical response to opioid analgesics: clinical utility and future perspectives. Clin Pharmacokinet 43(14):983–1013
Oertel B, Lötsch J (2008) Genetic mutations that prevent pain: implications for future pain medication. Pharmacogenomics 9(2):179–194
Fiore M, Chaldakov GN, Aloe L (2009) Nerve growth factor as a signaling molecule for nerve cells and also for the neuroendocrine-immune systems. Rev Neurosci 20:133–145
Hefti FF, Rosenthal A, Walicke PA, Wyatt S, Vergara G, Shelton DL, Davies AM (2006) Novel class of pain drugs based on antagonism of NGF. Trends Pharmacol Sci 27:85–91
Einarsdottir E, Carlsson A, Minde J, Toolanen G, Svensson O, Solders G, Holmgren G, Holmberg D, Holmberg M (2004) A mutation in the nerve growth factor beta gene (NGFB) causes loss of pain perception. Hum Mol Genet 13(8):799–805
Lane NE, Schnitzer TJ, Birbara CA, Mokhtarani M, Shelton DL, Smith MD, Brown MT (2010) Tanezumab for the treatment of pain from osteoarthritis of the knee. N Engl J Med 363(16):1521–1531
Schnitzer TJ, Lane NE, Birbara C, Smith MD, Simpson SL, Brown MT (2011) Long-term open- label study of tanezumab for moderate to severe osteoarthritic knee pain. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2011.01.009
Smeyne RJ, Klein R, Schnapp A, Long LK, Bryant S, Lewin A, Lira SA, Barbacid M (1994) Severe sensory and sympathetic neuropathies in mice carrying a disrupted Trk/NGF receptor gene. Nature 368(6468):246–249
Indo Y, Tsuruta M, Hayashida Y, Karim MA, Ohta K, Kawano T, Mitsubuchi H, Tonoki H, Awaya Y, Matsuda I (1996) Mutations in the TRKA/NGF receptor gene in patients with congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis. Nat Genet 13(4):485–488
Indo Y (2001) Molecular basis of congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA): mutations and polymorphisms in TRKA (NTRK1) gene encoding the receptor tyrosine kinase for nerve growth factor. Hum Mutat 18(6):462–471
Mantegazza M, Curia G, Biagini G, Ragsdale DS, Avoli M (2010) Voltage-gated sodium channels as therapeutic targets in epilepsy and other neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol 9:413–424
Cox JJ, Reimann F, Nicholas AK, Thornton G, Roberts E, Springell K, Karbani G, Jafri H, Mannan J, Raashid Y, Al-Gazali L, Hamamy H, Valente EM, Gorman S, Williams R, McHale DP, Wood JN, Gribble FM, Woods CG (2006) An SCN9A channelopathy causes congenital inability to experience pain. Nature 444(7121):894–898
Nilsen KB, Nicholas AK, Woods CG, Mellgren SI, Nebuchennykh M, Aasly J (2009) Two novel SCN9A mutations causing insensitivity to pain. Pain 143(1–2):155–158
Staud R, Price DD, Janicke D, Andrade E, Hadjipanayis AG, Eaton WT, Kaplan L, Wallace MR (2010) Two novel mutations of SCN9A (Nav1.7) are associated with partial congenital insensitivity to pain. Eur J Pain. doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2010.07.003
Lariviere WR, Mogil JS (2010) The genetics of pain and analgesia in laboratory animals. Methods Mol Biol 617:261–278
Tegeder I, Costigan M, Griffin RS, Abele A, Belfer I, Schmidt H, Ehnert C, Nejim J, Marian C, Scholz J, Wu T, Allchorne A, Diatchenko L, Binshtok AM, Goldman D, Adolph J, Sama S, Atlas SJ, Carlezon WA, Parsegian A, Lötsch J, Fillingim RB, Maixner W, Geisslinger G, Max MB, Woolf CJ (2006) GTP cyclohydrolase and tetrahydrobiopterin regulate pain sensitivity and persistence. Nat Med 12(11):1269–1277
Auerbach G, Nar H (1997) The pathway from GTP to tetrahydrobiopterin: three-dimensional structures of GTP cyclohydrolase I and 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin synthase. Biol Chem 378(3–4):185–192
Thony B, Auerbach G, Blau N (2000) Tetrahydrobiopterin biosynthesis, regeneration and functions. Biochem J 347(Pt 1):1–16
Tegeder I, Adolph J, Schmidt H, Woolf CJ, Geisslinger G, Lötsch J (2008) Reduced hyperalgesia in homozygous carriers of a GTP cyclohydrolase 1 haplotype. Eur J Pain 12(8):1069–1077
Campbell CM, Edwards RR, Carmona C, Uhart M, Wand G, Carteret A, Kim YK, Frost J, Campbell JN (2009) Polymorphisms in the GTP cyclohydrolase gene (GCH1) are associated with ratings of capsaicin pain. Pain 141(1–2):114–118
Doehring A, Freynhagen R, Griessinger N, Zimmermann M, Sittl R, Hentig N, Geisslinger G, Lötsch J (2009) Cross-sectional assessment of the consequences of a GTP cyclohydrolase 1 haplotype for specialized tertiary outpatient pain care. Clin J Pain 25(9):781–785
Lötsch J, Klepstad P, Doehring A, Dale O (2010) A GTP cyclohydrolase 1 genetic variant delays cancer pain. Pain 148:103–106
Kim H, Dionne RA (2007) Lack of influence of GTP cyclohydrolase gene (GCH1) variations on pain sensitivity in humans. Mol Pain 3:6
Lazarev M, Lamb J, Barmada Pitt Edu MM, Dai F, Anderson MA, Max MB, Whitcomb DC (2008) Does the pain-protective GTP cyclohydrolase haplotype significantly alter the pattern or severity of pain in humans with chronic pancreatitis? Mol Pain 4(1):58
Zhang L, Rao F, Zhang K, Khandrika S, Das M, Vaingankar SM, Bao X, Rana BK, Smith DW, Wessel J, Salem RM, Rodriguez-Flores JL, Mahata SK, Schork NJ, Ziegler MG, O'Connor DT (2007) Discovery of common human genetic variants of GTP cyclohydrolase 1 (GCH1) governing nitric oxide, autonomic activity, and cardiovascular risk. J Clin Invest 117(9):2658–2671
Doehring A, Antoniades C, Channon KM, Tegeder I, Lötsch J (2008) Clinical genetics of functionally mild non-coding GTP cyclohydrolase 1 (GCH1) polymorphisms modulating pain and cardiovascular risk. Mutat Res 659(3):195–201
Costigan M, Belfer I, Griffin RS, Dai F, Barrett LB, Coppola G, Wu T, Kiselycznyk C, Poddar M, Lu Y, Diatchenko L, Smith S, Cobos EJ, Zaykin D, Allchorne A, Shen PH, Nikolajsen L, Karppinen J, Mannikko M, Kelempisioti A, Goldman D, Maixner W, Geschwind DH, Max MB, Seltzer Z, Woolf CJ (2010) Multiple chronic pain states are associated with a common amino acid-changing allele in KCNS1. Brain 133(9):2519–2527
Maitland ML, Vasisht K, Ratain MJ (2006) TPMT, UGT1A1 and DPYD: genotyping to ensure safer cancer therapy? Trends Pharmacol Sci 27(8):432–437
Innocenti F, Undevia SD, Iyer L, Chen PX, Das S, Kocherginsky M, Karrison T, Janisch L, Ramirez J, Rudin CM, Vokes EE, Ratain MJ (2004) Genetic variants in the UDP- glucuronosyltransferase 1A1 gene predict the risk of severe neutropenia of irinotecan. J Clin Oncol 22(8):1382–1388
Relling MV, Hancock ML, Rivera GK, Sandlund JT, Ribeiro RC, Krynetski EY, Pui CH, Evans WE (1999) Mercaptopurine therapy intolerance and heterozygosity at the thiopurine S- methyltransferase gene locus. J Natl Cancer Inst 91(23):2001–2008
Kim H, Dionne RA (2005) Genetics, pain, and analgesia (volume XIII, no. 3). http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/TemplateRedirect.cfm?template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=7637
Kim H, Clark D, Dionne RA (2009) Genetic contributions to clinical pain and analgesia: avoiding pitfalls in genetic research. J Pain 10(7):663–693
Lötsch J, Geisslinger G (2006) Current evidence for a genetic modulation of the response to analgesics. Pain 121(1–2):1–5
Lötsch J, Geisslinger G (2005) Are mu-opioid receptor polymorphisms important for clinical opioid therapy? Trends Mol Med 11(2):82–89
Nishizawa D, Nagashima M, Katoh R, Satoh Y, Tagami M, Kasai S, Ogai Y, Han W, Hasegawa J, Shimoyama N, Sora I, Hayashida M, Ikeda K (2009) Association between KCNJ6 (GIRK2) gene polymorphisms and postoperative analgesic requirements after major abdominal surgery. PLoS ONE 4(9):e7060
Lee YS, Kim H, Wu TX, Wang XM, Dionne RA (2006) Genetically mediated interindividual variation in analgesic responses to cyclooxygenase inhibitory drugs. Clin Pharmacol Ther 79(5):407–418
Oertel BG, Kettner M, Scholich K, Renne C, Roskam B, Geisslinger G, Schmidt PH, Lötsch J (2009) A Common Human mu-Opioid Receptor Genetic Variant Diminishes the Receptor Signaling Efficacy in Brain Regions Processing the Sensory Information of Pain. J Biol Chem 284(10):6530–6535
Zhang Y, Wang D, Johnson AD, Papp AC, Sadee W (2005) Allelic expression imbalance of human mu opioid receptor (OPRM1) caused by variant A118G. J Biol Chem 280(38):32618–32624
Bond C, LaForge KS, Tian M, Melia D, Zhang S, Borg L, Gong J, Schluger J, Strong JA, Leal SM, Tischfield JA, Kreek MJ, Yu L (1998) Single-nucleotide polymorphism in the human mu opioid receptor gene alters beta-endorphin binding and activity: possible implications for opiate addiction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95(16):9608–9613
Lötsch J, Zimmermann M, Darimont J, Marx C, Dudziak R, Skarke C, Geisslinger G (2002) Does the A118G polymorphism at the mu-opioid receptor gene protect against morphine-6- glucuronide toxicity? Anesthesiology 97(4):814–819
Walter C, Lötsch J (2009) Meta-analysis of the relevance of the OPRM1 118A>G genetic variant for pain treatment. Pain 146(3):270–275
Hirota T, Ieiri I, Takane H, Sano H, Kawamoto K, Aono H, Yamasaki A, Takeuchi H, Masada M, Shimizu E, Higuchi S, Otsubo K (2003) Sequence variability and candidate gene analysis in two cancer patients with complex clinical outcomes during morphine therapy. Drug Metab Dispos 31(5):677–680
Oertel BG, Schmidt R, Schneider A, Geisslinger G, Lötsch J (2006) The mu-opioid receptor gene polymorphism 118A>G depletes alfentanil-induced analgesia and protects against respiratory depression in homozygous carriers. Pharmacogenet Genomics 16(9):625–636
Shabalina SA, Zaykin DV, Gris P, Ogurtsov AY, Gauthier J, Shibata K, Tchivileva IE, Belfer I, Mishra B, Kiselycznyk C, Wallace MR, Staud R, Spiridonov NA, Max MB, Goldman D, Fillingim RB, Maixner W, Diatchenko L (2009) Expansion of the Human mu-Opioid Receptor Gene Architecture: Novel Functional Variants. Hum Mol Genet 18:1037–1051
Gris P, Gauthier J, Cheng P, Gibson DG, Gris D, Laur O, Pierson J, Wentworth S, Nackley AG, Maixner W, Diatchenko L (2010) A novel alternatively spliced isoform of the mu-opioid receptor: functional antagonism. Mol Pain 6:33
Berthele A, Platzer S, Jochim B, Boecker H, Buettner A, Conrad B, Riemenschneider M, Toelle TR (2005) COMT Val108/158Met genotype affects the mu-opioid receptor system in the human brain: evidence from ligand-binding, G-protein activation and preproenkephalin mRNA expression. Neuroimage 28(1):185–193
Zubieta JK, Heitzeg MM, Smith YR, Bueller JA, Xu K, Xu Y, Koeppe RA, Stohler CS, Goldman D (2003) COMT val158met genotype affects mu-opioid neurotransmitter responses to a pain stressor. Science 299(5610):1240–1243
Rakvag TT, Klepstad P, Baar C, Kvam TM, Dale O, Kaasa S, Krokan HE, Skorpen F (2005) The Val158Met polymorphism of the human catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene may influence morphine requirements in cancer pain patients. Pain 116(1–2):73–78
Lacroix-Fralish ML, Ledoux JB, Mogil JS (2007) The Pain Genes Database: An interactive web browser of pain-related transgenic knockout studies. Pain 131(1–2):3e1–3e4
Mitrovic I, Margeta-Mitrovic M, Bader S, Stoffel M, Jan LY, Basbaum AI (2003) Contribution of GIRK2-mediated postsynaptic signaling to opiate and alpha 2-adrenergic analgesia and analgesic sex differences. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100(1):271–276
Kobayashi T, Ikeda K, Kojima H, Niki H, Yano R, Yoshioka T, Kumanishi T (1999) Ethanol opens G-protein-activated inwardly rectifying K+ channels. Nat Neurosci 2:1091–1097
Marker CL, Stoffel M, Wickman K (2004) Spinal G-protein-gated K+ channels formed by GIRK1 and GIRK2 subunits modulate thermal nociception and contribute to morphine analgesia. J Neurosci 24(11):2806–2812
Lötsch J, Prüss H, Veh RW, Doehring A (2010) A KCNJ6 (Kir3.2, GIRK2) gene polymorphism modulates opioid effects on analgesia and addiction but not on pupil size. Pharmacogenet Genomics 20(5):291–297
Mogil JS, Wilson SG, Chesler EJ, Rankin AL, Nemmani KV, Lariviere WR, Groce MK, Wallace MR, Kaplan L, Staud R, Ness TJ, Glover TL, Stankova M, Mayorov A, Hruby VJ, Grisel JE, Fillingim RB (2003) The melanocortin-1 receptor gene mediates female-specific mechanisms of analgesia in mice and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100(8):4867–4872
Skarke C, Reus M, Schmidt R, Grundei I, Schuss P, Geisslinger G, Lötsch J (2006) The cyclooxygenase 2 genetic variant −765G>C does not modulate the effects of celecoxib on prostaglandin E2 production. Clin Pharmacol Ther 80(6):621–632
Rodger IW (2009) Analgesic targets: today and tomorrow. Inflammopharmacology 17:151–161
Clare JJ (2010) Targeting voltage-gated sodium channels for pain therapy. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 19:45–62
Patapoutian A, Tate S, Woolf CJ (2009) Transient receptor potential channels: targeting pain at the source. Nat Rev Drug Discov 8(1):55–68
Choi J-S, Cheng X, Foster E, Leffler A, Tyrrell L, Te Morsche RHM, Eastman EM, Jansen HJ, Huehne K, Nau C, Dib-Hajj SD, Drenth JPH, Waxman SG (2010) Alternative splicing may contribute to time-dependent manifestation of inherited erythromelalgia. Brain 133:1823–1835
Norbury TA, MacGregor AJ, Urwin J, Spector TD, McMahon SB (2007) Heritability of responses to painful stimuli in women: a classical twin study. Brain 130(Pt 11):3041–3049
Ahn H-S, Dib-Hajj S, Cox JJ, Tyrell L, Elmslie FV, Clarke AA, Drenth JPH, Woods CG, Waxman SG (2010) A new Nav1.7 sodium channel mutation I234T in a child with severe pain. Eur J Pain 14:944–950
Reimann F, Cox JJ, Belfer I, Diatchenko L, Zaykin DV, McHale DP, Drenth JP, Dai F, Wheeler J, Sanders F, Wood L, Wu TX, Karppinen J, Nikolajsen L, Mannikko M, Max MB, Kiselycznyk C, Poddar M, Te Morsche RH, Smith S, Gibson D, Kelempisioti A, Maixner W, Gribble FM, Woods CG (2010) Pain perception is altered by a nucleotide polymorphism in SCN9A. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. doi:10.1073/pnas.0913181107
Estacion M, Harty TP, Choi J-S, Tyrrell L, Dib-Hajj SD, Waxman SG (2009) A sodium channel gene SCN9A polymorphism that increases nociceptor excitability. Ann Neurol 66:862–866
Samuels ME, te Morsche RHM, Lynch ME, Drenth JPH (2008) Compound heterozygosity in sodium channel Nav1.7 in a family with hereditary erythermalgia. Mol Pain 4:21
Kremeyer B, Lopera F, Cox JJ, Momin A, Rugiero F, Marsh S, Woods CG, Jones NG, Paterson KJ, Fricker FR, Villegas A, Acosta N, Pineda-Trujillo NG, Ramirez JD, Zea J, Burley MW, Bedoya G, Bennett DL, Wood JN, Ruiz-Linares A (2010) A gain-of-function mutation in TRPA1 causes familial episodic pain syndrome. Neuron 66(5):671–680
Montell C (2005) Drosophila TRP channels. Pflügers Arch Eur J Physiol 451:19–28
Story GM, Peier AM, Reeve AJ, Eid SR, Mosbacher J, Hricik TR, Earley TJ, Hergarden AC, Andersson DA, Hwang SW, McIntyre P, Jegla T, Bevan S, Patapoutian A (2003) ANKTM1, a TRP-like channel expressed in nociceptive neurons, is activated by cold temperatures. Cell 112(6):819–829
Jordt S-E, Bautista DM, Chuang H-H, McKemy DD, Zygmunt PM, Högestätt ED, Meng ID, Julius D (2004) Mustard oils and cannabinoids excite sensory nerve fibres through the TRP channel ANKTM1. Nature 427:260–265
McKemy DD (2005) How cold is it? TRPM8 and TRPA1 in the molecular logic of cold sensation. Mol Pain 1(1):16
Peier AM, Moqrich A, Hergarden AC, Reeve AJ, Andersson DA, Story GM, Earley TJ, Dragoni I, McIntyre P, Bevan S, Patapoutian A (2002) A TRP channel that senses cold stimuli and menthol. Cell 108(5):705–715
Eid SR, Cortright DN (2009) Transient receptor potential channels on sensory nerves. Handbook of experimental pharmacology. Springer, Berlin, pp 261–281
Poulsen L, Brosen K, Arendt-Nielsen L, Gram LF, Elbaek K, Sindrup SH (1996) Codeine and morphine in extensive and poor metabolizers of sparteine: pharmacokinetics, analgesic effect and side effects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 51(3–4):289–295
Collart L, Luthy C, Favario-Constantin C, Dayer P (1993) Duality of the analgesic effect of tramadol in humans. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 123(47):2241–2243
Madadi P, Koren G, Cairns J, Chitayat D, Gaedigk A, Leeder JS, Teitelbaum R, Karaskov T, Aleksa K (2007) Safety of codeine during breastfeeding: fatal morphine poisoning in the breastfed neonate of a mother prescribed codeine. Can Fam Physician 53(1):33–35
Koren G, Cairns J, Chitayat D, Gaedigk A, Leeder SJ (2006) Pharmacogenetics of morphine poisoning in a breastfed neonate of a codeine-prescribed mother. Lancet 368(9536):704
Ferreirós N, Dresen S, Hermanns-Clausen M, Auwaerter V, Thierauf A, Müller C, Hentschel R, Trittler R, Skopp G, Weinmann W (2009) Fatal and severe codeine intoxication in 3-year-old twins–interpretation of drug and metabolite concentrations. Int J Leg Med 123:387–394
Voronov P, Przybylo HJ, Jagannathan N (2007) Apnea in a child after oral codeine: a genetic variant - an ultra-rapid metabolizer. Paediatr Anaesth 17(7):684–687
Lötsch J, Rohrbacher M, Schmidt H, Doehring A, Brockmöller J, Geisslinger G (2009) Can extremely low or high morphine formation from codeine be predicted prior to therapy initiation? Pain 144(1–2):119–124
Dalen P, Frengell C, Dahl ML, Sjoqvist F (1997) Quick onset of severe abdominal pain after codeine in an ultrarapid metabolizer of debrisoquine. Ther Drug Monit 19(5):543–544
Gasche Y, Daali Y, Fathi M, Chiappe A, Cottini S, Dayer P, Desmeules J (2004) Codeine intoxication associated with ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolism. N Engl J Med 351(27):2827–2831
Campa D, Gioia A, Tomei A, Poli P, Barale R (2008) Association of ABCB1/MDR1 and OPRM1 gene polymorphisms with morphine pain relief. Clin Pharmacol Ther 83(4):559–566
Skarke C, Jarrar M, Schmidt H, Kauert G, Langer M, Geisslinger G, Lötsch J (2003) Effects of ABCB1 (multidrug resistance transporter) gene mutations on disposition and central nervous effects of loperamide in healthy volunteers. Pharmacogenetics 13(11):651–660
Coller JK, Barratt DT, Dahlen K, Loennechen MH, Somogyi AA (2006) ABCB1 genetic variability and methadone dosage requirements in opioid-dependent individuals. Clin Pharmacol Ther 80(6):682–690
Park HJ, Shinn HK, Ryu SH, Lee HS, Park CS, Kang JH (2007) Genetic polymorphisms in the ABCB1 gene and the effects of fentanyl in Koreans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 81(4):539–546
Szeto CY, Tang NL, Lee DT, Stadlin A (2001) Association between mu opioid receptor gene polymorphisms and Chinese heroin addicts. Neuroreport 12(6):1103–1106
Shi J, Hui L, Xu Y, Wang F, Huang W, Hu G (2002) Sequence variations in the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) associated with human addiction to heroin. Hum Mutat 19(4):459–460
Tan EC, Tan CH, Karupathivan U, Yap EP (2003) Mu opioid receptor gene polymorphisms and heroin dependence in Asian populations. Neuroreport 14(4):569–572
Hoehe MR, Kopke K, Wendel B, Rohde K, Flachmeier C, Kidd KK, Berrettini WH, Church GM (2000) Sequence variability and candidate gene analysis in complex disease: association of mu opioid receptor gene variation with substance dependence. Hum Mol Genet 9(19):2895–2908
Crowley JJ, Oslin DW, Patkar AA, Gottheil E, DeMaria PA Jr, O'Brien CP, Berrettini WH, Grice DE (2003) A genetic association study of the mu opioid receptor and severe opioid dependence. Psychiatr Genet 13(3):169–173
Berrettini WH, Hoehe MR, Ferraro TN, Demaria PA, Gottheil E (1997) Human mu opioid receptor gene polymorphisms and vulnerability to substance abuse. Addict Biol 2(3):303–308
Luo X, Kranzler HR, Zhao H, Gelernter J (2003) Haplotypes at the OPRM1 locus are associated with susceptibility to substance dependence in European-Americans. Am J Med Genet 120B(1):97–108
Doehring A, Hentig N, Graff J, Salamat S, Schmidt M, Geisslinger G, Harder S, Lötsch J (2009) Genetic variants altering dopamine D2 receptor expression or function modulate the risk of opiate addiction and the dosage requirements of methadone substitution. Pharmacogenet Genomics 19(6):407–414
Barratt DT, Coller JK, Somogyi AA (2006) Association between the DRD2 A1 allele and response to methadone and buprenorphine maintenance treatments. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 141(4):323–331
Proudnikov D, LaForge KS, Hofflich H, Levenstien M, Gordon D, Barral S, Ott J, Kreek MJ (2006) Association analysis of polymorphisms in serotonin 1B receptor (HTR1B) gene with heroin addiction: a comparison of molecular and statistically estimated haplotypes. Pharmacogenet Genomics 16(1):25–36
Proudnikov D, Hamon S, Ott J, Kreek MJ (2008) Association of polymorphisms in the melanocortin receptor type 2 (MC2R, ACTH receptor) gene with heroin addiction. Neurosci Lett 435(3):234–239
Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F (2005) The genetics of addictions: uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet 6(7):521–532
Mogil JS (2009) Are we getting anywhere in human pain genetics? Pain 146(3):231–232
Lötsch J, von Hentig N, Freynhagen R, Griessinger N, Zimmermann M, Doehring A, Rohrbacher M, Sittl R, Geisslinger G (2009) Cross-sectional analysis of the influence of currently known pharmacogenetic modulators on opioid therapy in outpatient pain centers. Pharmacogenet Genomics 19(6):429–436
Lötsch J, Geisslinger G (2007) Current evidence for a modulation of nociception by human genetic polymorphisms. Pain 132(1–2):18–22
Lötsch J, Geisslinger G (2010) Pharmacogenetics of new analgesics. Br J Pharmacol. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01074.x
Nicholson GA, Dawkins JL, Blair IP, Kennerson ML, Gordon MJ, Cherryson AK, Nash J, Bananis T (1996) The gene for hereditary sensory neuropathy type I (HSN-I) maps to chromosome 9q22.1-q22.3. Nat Genet 13(1):101–104
Bejaoui K, Wu C, Scheffler MD, Haan G, Ashby P, Wu L, de Jong P, Brown RH Jr (2001) SPTLC1 is mutated in hereditary sensory neuropathy, type 1. Nat Genet 27(3):261–262
Dawkins JL, Hulme DJ, Brahmbhatt SB, Auer-Grumbach M, Nicholson GA (2001) Mutations in SPTLC1, encoding serine palmitoyltransferase, long chain base subunit-1, cause hereditary sensory neuropathy type I. Nat Genet 27(3):309–312
Lafreniere RG, MacDonald ML, Dube MP, MacFarlane J, O'Driscoll M, Brais B, Meilleur S, Brinkman RR, Dadivas O, Pape T, Platon C, Radomski C, Risler J, Thompson J, Guerra-Escobio AM, Davar G, Breakefield XO, Pimstone SN, Green R, Pryse-Phillips W, Goldberg YP, Younghusband HB, Hayden MR, Sherrington R, Rouleau GA, Samuels ME (2004) Identification of a novel gene (HSN2) causing hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type II through the Study of Canadian Genetic Isolates. Am J Hum Genet 74(5):1064–1073
Riviere JB, Verlaan DJ, Shekarabi M, Lafreniere RG, Benard M, Der Kaloustian VM, Shbaklo Z, Rouleau GA (2004) A mutation in the HSN2 gene causes sensory neuropathy type II in a Lebanese family. Ann Neurol 56(4):572–575
Blumenfeld A, Slaugenhaupt SA, Axelrod FB, Lucente DE, Maayan C, Liebert CB, Ozelius LJ, Trofatter JA, Haines JL, Breakefield XO et al (1993) Localization of the gene for familial dysautonomia on chromosome 9 and definition of DNA markers for genetic diagnosis. Nat Genet 4(2):160–164
Slaugenhaupt SA, Blumenfeld A, Gill SP, Leyne M, Mull J, Cuajungco MP, Liebert CB, Chadwick B, Idelson M, Reznik L, Robbins C, Makalowska I, Brownstein M, Krappmann D, Scheidereit C, Maayan C, Axelrod FB, Gusella JF (2001) Tissue-specific expression of a splicing mutation in the IKBKAP gene causes familial dysautonomia. Am J Hum Genet 68(3):598–605
Houlden H, King RH, Hashemi-Nejad A, Wood NW, Mathias CJ, Reilly M, Thomas PK (2001) A novel TRK A (NTRK1) mutation associated with hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type V. Ann Neurol 49(4):521–525
Goldberg YP, MacFarlane J, MacDonald ML, Thompson J, Dube MP, Mattice M, Fraser R, Young C, Hossain S, Pape T, Payne B, Radomski C, Donaldson G, Ives E, Cox J, Younghusband HB, Green R, Duff A, Boltshauser E, Grinspan GA, Dimon JH, Sibley BG, Andria G, Toscano E, Kerdraon J, Bowsher D, Pimstone SN, Samuels ME, Sherrington R, Hayden MR (2007) Loss-of- function mutations in the Nav1.7 gene underlie congenital indifference to pain in multiple human populations. Clin Genet 71(4):311–319
Miura Y, Hiura M, Torigoe K, Numata O, Kuwahara A, Matsunaga M, Hasegawa S, Boku N, Ino H, Mardy S, Endo F, Matsuda I, Indo Y (2000) Complete paternal uniparental isodisomy for chromosome 1 revealed by mutation analyses of the TRKA (NTRK1) gene encoding a receptor tyrosine kinase for nerve growth factor in a patient with congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis. Hum Genet 107(3):205–209
Klepstad P, Rakvag TT, Kaasa S, Holthe M, Dale O, Borchgrevink PC, Baar C, Vikan T, Krokan HE, Skorpen F (2004) The 118A>G polymorphism in the human mu-opioid receptor gene may increase morphine requirements in patients with pain caused by malignant disease. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 48(10):1232–1239
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lötsch, J. Genetic variability of pain perception and treatment—clinical pharmacological implications. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 67, 541–551 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-011-1012-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-011-1012-9