Skip to main content

Gait performance is not influenced by working memory when walking at a self-selected pace

Experimental Brain Research volume 232, pages 515–525 (2014)Cite this article

Abstract

Gait performance exhibits patterns within the stride-to-stride variability that can be indexed using detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA). Previous work employing DFA has shown that gait patterns can be influenced by constraints, such as natural aging or disease, and they are informative regarding a person’s functional ability. Many activities of daily living require concurrent performance in the cognitive and gait domains; specifically working memory is commonly engaged while walking, which is considered dual-tasking. It is unknown if taxing working memory while walking influences gait performance as assessed by DFA. This study used a dual-tasking paradigm to determine if performance decrements are observed in gait or working memory when performed concurrently. Healthy young participants (N = 16) performed a working memory task (automated operation span task) and a gait task (walking at a self-selected speed on a treadmill) in single- and dual-task conditions. A second dual-task condition (reading while walking) was included to control for visual attention, but also introduced a task that taxed working memory over the long term. All trials involving gait lasted at least 10 min. Performance in the working memory task was indexed using five dependent variables (absolute score, partial score, speed error, accuracy error, and math error), while gait performance was indexed by quantifying the mean, standard deviation, and DFA α of the stride interval time series. Two multivariate analyses of variance (one for gait and one for working memory) were used to examine performance in the single- and dual-task conditions. No differences were observed in any of the gait or working memory dependent variables as a function of task condition. The results suggest the locomotor system is adaptive enough to complete a working memory task without compromising gait performance when walking at a self-selected pace.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Fig. 1

References

  • Baddeley AD (1986) Working memory. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley AD, Hitch GJL (1974) Working memory, vol 8. The psychology of learning and motivation: advances in research and theory. Academic Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker JT, Morris RG (1999) Working memory. Brain Cogn 41:1–8

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beilock SL (2007) Understanding skilled performance: memory, attention, and choking under pressure. Sport and exercise psychology: international perspectives. Fitness Information Technology, Morgantown

  • Beilock SL, Ramirez G (2011) On the interplay of emotion and cognitive control: implications for enhancing academic achievement. In: Mestre JP, Ross BH (eds) Phychology of learning and motivation, vol 55. Elsevier, pp 137–169

  • Bloem BR, Valkenburg VV, Slabbekoorn M, Willemsen MD (2001) The multiple tasks test: development and normal strategies. Gait Posture 14:191–202

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buzzi UH, Ulrich BD (2004) Dynamic stability of gait cycles as a function of speed and system constraints. Mot Control 8(3):241–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Buzzi UH, Stergiou N, Kurz MJ, Hageman PA, Heidel J (2003) Nonlinear dynamics indicates aging affects variability during gait. Clin Biomech 18:435–443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camicioli R, Howieson D, Lehman S, Kaye J (1997) Talking while walking: the effect of a dual task in aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 48(4):955–958

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang M, Shaikh S, Chau T (2009) Effect of treadmill walking on the stride interval dynamics of human gait. Gait Posture 30(4):431–435

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan N (2001) The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behav Brain Sci 24:87–185

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damouras S, Chang MD, Sejdić E, Chau T (2010) An empirical examination of detrended fluctuation analysis for gait data. Gait Posture 31(3):336–340

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dingwell JB, Cusumano JP (2000) Nonlinear time series analysis of normal and pathological human walking. Chaos 10(4):848–863

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebersbach G, Dimitrivevic MR, Poewe W (1995) Influence of concurrent tasks on gait: a dual-task approach. Percept Mot Skills 81:107–113

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engle RW (2002) Workign memory capacity as executive attention. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 11:19–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haggard P, Cockburn J, Cock J, Fordham C, Wade D (2000) Interference between gait and cognitive tasks in a rehabilitating neurological population. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 69:479–486

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM (2005) Walking is more like catching than tapping: gait in the elderly as a complex cognitive task. Exp Brain Res 164:541–548

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM (2007) Gait dynamics, fractals and falls: finding meaning in the stride-to-stride fluctuations of human walking. Hum Mov Sci 26(4):555–589

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM, Peng C-K, Ladin Z, Wei JY, Goldberger AL (1995) Is walking a random walk? Evidence for long-range correlations in stride interval of human gait. J Appl Physiol 78(1):349–358

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM, Purdon PL, Peng CK, Ladin Z, Wei JY, Goldberger AL (1996) Fractal dynamics of human gait: stability of long-range correlations in stride interval fluctuations. J Appl Physiol 80(5):1448–1457

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM, Mitchell SL, Firtion R, Peng CK, Cudkowicz ME, Wei JY, Goldberger AL (1997) Altered fractal dynamics of gait: reduced stride-interval correlations with aging and Huntington’s disease. J Appl Physiol 82(1):262–269

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM, Lertratanakul A, Cudkowicz ME, Peterson AL, Kaliton D, Goldberger AL (2000) Dynamic markers of altered gait rhythm in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Appl Physiol 88(6):2045–2053

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hausdorff JM, Schweiger A, Herman T, Yogev-Seligmann G, Giladi N (2008) Dual-task decrements in gait: contributing factors among healthy older adults. J Gerontol Med Sci 63A(12):1335–1343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hove MJ, Suzuki K, Uchitomi H, Orimo S, Miyake Y (2012) Interactive rhythmic auditory stimulation reinstates natural 1/f timing in gait of Parkinson’s patients. PLoS ONE 7(3):e32600

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan K, Challis JH, Newell KM (2006) Long range correlations in the stride interval of running. Gait Posture 24(1):120–125

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan K, Challis JH, Newell KM (2007a) Speed influences on the scaling behavior of gait cycle fluctuations during treadmill running. Hum Mov Sci 26(1):87–102

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan K, Challis JH, Newell KM (2007b) Walking speed influences on gait cycle variability. Gait Posture 26(1):128–134

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan K, Challis JH, Cusumano JP, Newell KM (2009) Stability and the time-dependent structure of gait variability in walking and running. Hum Mov Sci 28(1):113–128

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiefer AW, Riley MA, Shockley K, Villard S, Van Orden GC (2009) Walking changes the dynamics of cognitive estimates of time intervals. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 35(5):1532–1541

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lajoie Y, Teasdale N, Bard C, Fleury M (1996) Upright standing and gait: are there changes in attentional requirements related to normal aging. Exp Aging Res 22:185–198

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li KZH, Lindenberger U, Freund AM, Baltes PB (2001) Walking while memorizing: age-related differences in compensatory behavior. Psychol Sci 12:230–237

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindenberger U, Marsiske M, Baltes PB (2000) Memorizing while walking: increase in dual-task costs from young adulthood to old age. Psychol Aging 15:417–436

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lövdén M, Schaefer S, Pohlmeyer AE, Lindenberger U (2008) Walking variability and working-memory load in aging: a dual-process account relating cognitive control to motor control performance. J Gerontol Psychol Sci 63B(3):P121–P128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCulloch K (2007) Attention and dual-task conditions: physical therapy implications for individuals with acquired brain injury. J Neurol Phys Therapy 31:104–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitra S, Fraizer EV (2004) Effects of explicit sway-minimization on postural–suprapostural dual-task performance. Hum Mov Sci 23:1–20

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olmo MFd, Cudeiro J (2005) Temporal variability of gait in Parkinson disease: effects of a rehabilitation programme based on rhythmic sound cues. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 11:25–33

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng CK, Buldyrev SV, Havlin S, Simons M, Stanley HE, Goldberger AL (1994) Mosaic organization of DNA necleotides. Phys Rev E 49(2):1685–1689

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plummer-D’Amato P, Altmann LJP, Saracino D, Fox E, Behrman AL, Marsiske M (2008) Interactions between cognitive tasks and gait after stroke: a dual task study. Gait Posture 27(4):683–688

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Redick TS, Broadway JM, Meier ME, Kuriakose PS, Unsworth N, Kane MJ, Engle RW (2012) Measuring working memory capacity with automated complex span tasks. Eur J Psychol Assess 28:164–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhea CK, Kiefer AW (2013) Patterned variability in gait behavior: how can it be measured and what does it mean? Gait biometrics: basic patterns, role of neurological disorders and effects of physical activity. Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, Leonard KB (2013) Using fractal stimuli to restore adaptive gait. North American Society for Psychology in Sport and Physical Activity, New Orleans

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhea CK, Kiefer AW, D’Andrea SE, Warren WH, Aaron RK (under review) Global entrainment to a fractal metronome while walking induces corresponding shifts in fractal gait dynamics

  • Riccio GE, Stoffregen TA (1988) Affordances as constraints on the control of stance. Hum Mov Sci 7(2–4):265–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scafetta N, Marchi D, West BJ (2009) Understanding the complexity of human gait dynamics. Chaos 19:026108

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer S, Lövdén M, Wieckhorst B, Lindenberger U (2010) Cognitive performance is improved while walking: differences in cognitive-sensorimotor couplings between children and young adults. Eur J Dev Psychol 7(3):371–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Springer S, Giladi N, Peretz C, Yogev G, Simon ES, Hausdorff JM (2006) Dual-tasking effects on gait variability: the role of aging, falls, and executive function. Mov Disord 21(7):950–957

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stergiou N, Decker LM (2011) Human movement variability, nonlinear dynamics, and pathology: is there a connection. Hum Mov Sci 30(5):869–888

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoffregen TA, Smart LJ, Bardy BG, Pagulayan RJ (1999) Postural stabilization of looking. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 25(6):1641–1658

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stolze H, Kuhtz-Buschbeck JP, Mondwurf C, Boczeck-Funcke A, Johnk K, Deuschl G, Illert M (1997) Gait analysis during treadmill and overground locomotion in children and adults. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 105:490–497

    CAS  PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Unsworth N, Heitz RP, Shrock JC, Engle RW (2005) An automated version of the operation span task. Behav Res Methods 37:498–505

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt DE, Newell KM (2002) Changing complexity in human behavior and physiology through aging and disease. Neurobiol Aging 23(1):1–11

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verrel J, Lövdén M, Schellenbach M, Schaefer S, Lindenberger U (2009) Interacting effects of cognitive load and adult age on the regularity of whole-body motion during treadmill walking. Psychol Aging 24(1):75–81

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vierordt Kv (1881) Ueber das Gehen des Menschen in Gesunden und Kranken Zustaenden nach Selb-stregistrireden Methoden. Laupp, Tubingen

    Google Scholar 

  • von Porat A, Henriksson M, Holmstrom E, Thorstensson CA, Mattsson L, Roos EM (2006) Knee kinematics and kinetics during gait, step and hop in males with a 16 years old ACL injury compared with matched controls. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 14:546–554

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West BJ, Griffin L (1999) Allometric control, inverse power laws and human gait. Chaos Solitions Fractals 10(9):1519–1527

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickens CD (2002) Multiple resources and performance prediction. Theor Issues Erognomic Sci 3:159–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woollacott M, Shumway-Cook A (2002) Attention and the control of posture and gait: a review of an emerging area of research. Gait Posture 16:1–14

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr. Jennifer Etnier and Dr. Michael Kane for their guidance in this project.

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Virtual Environment for Assessment and Rehabilitation Laboratory (VEAR Lab), Department of Kinesiology, Health and Human Performance (HHP) Building, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 1408 Walker Ave., Greensboro, NC, 27412, USA

    Jordan Grubaugh & Christopher K. Rhea

Authors
  1. Jordan Grubaugh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Christopher K. Rhea
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christopher K. Rhea.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Grubaugh, J., Rhea, C.K. Gait performance is not influenced by working memory when walking at a self-selected pace. Exp Brain Res 232, 515–525 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3759-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3759-y

Keywords

  • Dual-tasking
  • Gait
  • Working memory
  • Variability