Abstract
During fermentation, Saccharomyces yeast produces various aroma-active metabolites which determine the different characteristics of aroma and taste in fermented beverages. Amino acid utilisation by yeast during brewer’s wort fermentation is considered to be linked to flavour profile. For a better understanding of the relationship between the biosynthesis of aroma-relevant metabolites and the importance of amino acids, DNA microarrays were carried out on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain S81 and the Saccharomyces pastorianus strain S23. Changes in the transcription of those genes were measured which are associated with amino acid assimilation and its derived aroma-active compounds during fermentation. Genes were selected whose average expression level increased or decreased more than 1.5-fold at 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96 or 120 h and showed a significant (P ≤ 0.05) differential expression pattern during the period of fermentation. For the ale strain, 57 of the detected genes involved in flavour and amino acid metabolism were selected, whereas 46 significant genes were evaluated for the lager strain. Among these, genes were those involved in transcriptional regulation as well as others associated with amino acid transport, such as PUT4 which is accountable for the uptake of proline. Other genes whose expression decreased or increased during fermentation were evaluated—including those participating in amino acid metabolism, for example glutamate and proline metabolism—as well as enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of aroma-active higher alcohols and esters, which are most important for typical beer flavour. This study provides information that might help to improve the understanding and production of defined concentrations of specific aroma compounds during brewery fermentation.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- BCAA:
-
Branched-chain amino acid
- CEL:
-
(RNA signal intensity) files
- HS-GC-FID:
-
Headspace gas chromatography coupled with flame ionisation detection
- RMA:
-
Robust multichip average algorithm
References
Trelea I, Titica M, Corrieu G (2004) Dynamic optimisation of the aroma production in brewing fermentation. J Process Control 14:1–14
Vanderhaegen B, Neven H, Coghe S, Verstrepen K, Verachtert H, Derdelinckx G (2003) Evolution of chemical and sensory properties during ageing of top-fermented beer. J Agric Food Chem 51:6782–6790
Engan S (1972) Organoleptic threshold values of some alcohols and esters in beer. J Inst Brew 78:33–36
Majdak A, Herjavec S, Orlic S, Redzepovic S, Mirosevic N (2002) Comparison of wine aroma compounds produced by Saccharomyces paradoxus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. Food Technol Biotechnol 40:103–109
Vidrih R, Hribar J (1999) Synthesis of higher alcohols during cider processing. Food Chem 67:287–294
Inoue Y, Fukuda K, Wakai Y, Sudsai T, Kimura A (1994) Ester formation by a yeast Hansenula mrakii IFO 0895: contribution of esterase for isoamyl acetate production in sake brewing. LWT Food Sci Technol 27:189–193
Saerens SMG, Verbelen PJ, Vanbeneden N, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2008) Monitoring the influence of high-gravity brewing and fermentation temperature on flavour formation by analysis of gene expression levels in brewing yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 80:1039–1051
Torrea D, Fraile P, Grade T, Ancín C (2003) Production of volatile compounds in the fermentation of chardonnay musts inoculated with two strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with different nitrogen demands. Food Control 14:565–571
Hernández-Orte P, Ibarz M, Cacho J, Ferreira V (2006) Addition of amino acids to grape juice of Merlot variety: effect on amino acid uptake and aroma generation during alcoholic fermentation. Food Chem 98:300–310
Quain DE, Duffield ML (1985) A metabolic function for higher alcohol production by yeast. J Inst Brew 91:123
Meilgaard MC (1975) Flavor chemistry of beer: part I: flavor interaction between principal volatiles. MBAA Tech Quart 12:107–117
Engan S (1970) Wort composition and beer flavour I: the influence of some amino acids on the formation of higher aliphatic alcohols and esters. J Inst Brew 76:254–261
Äyräpää T (1971) Biosynthetic formation of higher alcohols by yeast. Dependence on the nitrogen nutrient level of the medium. J Inst Brew 77:266–276
Sablayrolles JM, Ball CB (1995) Fermentation kinetics and the production of volatiles during alcoholic fermentation. J Am Soc Brew Chem 53:71–78
Henschke PA, Jiranek V (1993) Yeasts-metabolism of nitrogen compounds. In: Fleet GH (ed) Wine microbiology and biotechnology, 2nd edn. Harwood Academic Publishers, Chur
Jones M, Pierce J (1964) Absorption of amino acids from wort by yeasts. J Inst Brew 70:315–397
Ahmad M, Bussey H (1986) Yeast arginine permease: nucleotide sequence of the CAN1 gene. Curr Genet 10:587–592
Amitrano AA, Saenz DA, Ramos EH (1997) GAP1 activity is dependent on cAMP in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Microbiol Lett 151:131–133
Garrett J (2008) Amino acid transport through the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Gap1 permease is controlled by the Ras/cAMP pathway. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 40:496–502
Jauniaux JC, Grenson M (1990) GAP1, the general amino acid permease gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nucleotide sequence, protein similarity with the other baker´s yeast amino acid permeases, and nitrogen catabolite repression. Eur J Biochem 190:39–44
Poole K, Walker ME, Warren T, Gardner J, McBryde C, De Lopes Barros M, Jiranek V (2009) Proline transport and stress tolerance of ammonia-insensitive mutants of the PUT4-encoded proline-spcific permease in yeast. J Gen Appl Microbiol 55:427–439
Regenberg B, Düring-Olsen L, Kielland-Brandt MC, Holmberg S (1999) Substrate specificity and gene expression of the amino-acid permeases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Curr Genet 36:317–328
Chen ECH (1978) The relative contribution of Ehrlich and biosynthetic pathways to the formation of fusel alcohols. J Am Soc Brew Chem 36:39–43
Eden A, Van Nedervelde L, Drukker M, Benvenisty N, Debourg A (2001) Involvement of branched-chain amino acid aminotransferases in the production of fusel alcohols during fermentation in yeast. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 55:296–300
Eden A, Simchen G, Benvenisty N (1996) Two yeast homologs of ECA39, a target for c-Myc regulation, code for cytosolic and mitochondrial branched-chain amino acid aminotransferases. J Biol Chem 271:20242–20245
Hazelwood AL, Daran JM, Van Maris AJA, Pronk JT, Dickinson JR (2008) The Ehrlich Pathway for fusel alcohol production: a century of research on Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolism. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:2259–2266
Dickinson JR, Harrison SJ, Hewlinsi MJE (1998) An investigation of the metabolism of valine to isobutyl alcohol in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 273:25751–25756
Dickinson JR, Lanterman MM, Danner DJ, Pearson BM, Sanz P, Harrison SJ, Hewlins MJE (1997) A 13C nuclear magnetic resonance investigation of the metabolism of leucine to isoamyl alcohol in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 272:26871–26878
Ehrlich F (1907) Über die Bedingungen der Fuselölbildung und über ihren Zusammenhang mit dem Eiweissaufbau der Hefe. Ber Dtsch Chem Ges 40:1027–1047
Perpète P, Duthoit O, De Mayer S, Imary L, Lawton A, Stavropoulos K, Gitonga V, Hewlins M, Dickinson J (2006) Methionine catabolism in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Yeast Res 6:48–56
Bamforth CW (2005) Food, fermentation and micro-organisms. Wiley-Blackwell, New York
Hui YH (2007) Handbook of food products manufacturing. Wiley-Interscience, New York
Malcorps P, Dufour JP (1992) Short-chain and medium chain aliphatic ester synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Eur J Biochem 210:1015–1022
Saerens SMG, Verstrepen KJ, Van Laere SDM, Voet ARD, Van Dijck P, Delvaux FR, Thevelein JM (2006) The Saccharomyces cerevisiae EHT1 and EEB1 genes encode novel enzymes with medium chain fatty acid ethyl ester synthesis and hydrolysis capacity. J Biol Chem 281:4446–4456
Laposata M (1998) Fatty acid ethyl esters: ethanol metabolites which mediate ethanol-induced organ damage and serve as markers of ethanol intake. Prog Lipid Res 37:307–316
Verstrepen KJ, Derdelinckx G, Dufour JP, Winderickx J, Thevelein JM, Pretorius IS, Delvaux FR (2003) Flavor-active esters: adding fruitiness to beer. J Biosci Bioeng 96:110–118
Meilgaard MC (2001) Effects on flavour of innovations in brewery equipment and processing: a review. J Inst Brew 107:271–286
Suomalainen H (1981) Yeast esterases and aroma esters in alcoholic beverages. J Inst Brew 87:296–300
Verstrepen KJ, Van Laere SDM, Vanderhaegen BMP, Derdelinckx G, Dufour JP, Pretorius IS, Winderickx J, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2003) Expression levels of the yeast alcohol acetyltransferase genes ATF1, Lg-ATF1, and ATF2 control the formation of a broad range of volatile esters. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:5228–5237
Hernández-Orte P, Ibarz M, Cacho J, Ferreira V (2005) Effect of the addition of ammonium and amino acids to musts of Airen variety on aromatic composition and sensory properties of the obtained wine. Food Chem 89:163–174
Procopio S, Krause D, Hofmann T, Becker T (2013) Significant amino acids in aroma compound profiling during yeast fermentation analyzed by PLS regression. LWT Food Sci Technol 51:423–432
Liang HY, Chen JY, Reeves M, Han BZ (2013) Aromatic and sensorial profiles of young Cabernet Sauvignon wines fermented by different Chinese autochthonous Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. Food Res Int 51:855–865
Yu Z, Zhao M, Li H, Zhao H, Zhang Q, Wan C, Li H (2012) A comparative study on physiological activities of lager and ale brewing yeasts under different gravity conditions. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 17:818–826
Vidgren V, Multanen J, Ruohonen L, Londesbotough J (2010) The temperature dependence of maltose transport in ale and lager strains of brewer’s yeast. FEMS Yeast Res 10:402–411
Libkind D, Hittinger CT, Valério E, Goncalves C, Dover J, Johnston M, Goncalves P, Sampaio JP (2011) Microbe domestication and the identification of the wild genetic stock of lager-brewing yeast. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:14539–14544
Sacher B (2006) Hefecharakterisierung anhand brautechnologischer Verhaltensmuster. Presented at the 3. Weihenstephaner Hefesymposium, Freising-Weihenstephan
Procopio S, Qian F, Becker T (2011) Interaction of nitrogen composition on aroma-active metabolites and flavor profiling. Presented at the 74th annual meeting of the ASBC, Fort Myers, Florida, USA
Krömer JO (2005) OPA amino acids on Gemini C18. Phenomenex application note ID: 15992
Ough CS (1969) Rapid determination of proline in grapes and wines. J Food Sci 34:228–230
Schönberger C (2004) Bedeutung nicht-flüchtiger Geschmacksstoffe in Bier. Dissertation der Technischen Universität-München, Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt
Irizarry R, Hobbs B, Collin F, Beazer-Barclay Y, Antonellis K, Scherf U, Speed T (2003) Exploration, normalization, and summaries of high density oligonucleotide array probe level data. Biostatistics 4:249–264
Gibson BR, Boulton CA, Box WG, Graham NS, Lawrence SJ, Linforth RST, Smart KA (2009) Amino acid uptake and yeast gene transcription during industrial brewery fermentation. J Am Soc Brew Chem 67:157–165
Perpete P, Santos G, Bodart E, Collin S (2005) Uptake of amino acids during beer production. J Am Soc Brew Chem 63:23–27
Gibson BR, Storgårds E, Krogerus K, Vidgren V (2013) Comparative physiology and fermentation performance of Saaz and Frohberg lager yeast strains and the parental species Saccharomyces eubayanus. Yeast 30:255–266
Schoondermark-Stolk SA, Jansen M, Verkleij AJ, Verrips CT, Euverink G-JW, Dijkhuizen L, Boonstra J (2006) Genome-wide transcription survey on flavour production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 22:1347–1356
Procopio S, Qian F, Becker T (2011) Function and regulation of yeast genes involved in higher alcohol and ester metabolism during beverage fermentation. Eur Food Res Technol 233:721–729
Dewhurts S, Smallman I (1988) A simple laboratory experiment to demonstrate transamination. Biochem Educ 16:97–98
Walker GM (1998) Yeast physiology and biotechnology. Wiley, Chichester
Prusiner S, Stadtman ER (1973) The enzymes of glutamine metabolism. Academic Press, New York and London
Wang SS, Brandriss MC (1987) Proline utilization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: sequence, regulation, and mitochondrial localization of the PUT1 gene-product. Mol Cell Biol 7:4431–4440
Ingledew WM, Magnus CA, Sosulski FW (1987) Influence of oxygen on proline utilization during the wine fermentation. Am J Enol Vitticult 38:246–248
Kaino T, Takagi H (2008) Gene expression profiles and intracellular contents of stress protectants in Saccharomyces cerevisiae under ethanol and sorbitol stresses. Appl Environ Microbiol 79:273–283
Takagi H, Takaoka M, Kawaguchi A, Kubo Y (2005) Effect of l-proline on sake brewing and ethanol stress in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:8656–8662
Rouillon A, Surdin-Kerjan Y, Thomas D (1999) Transport of sulfonium compounds. Characterization of the s-adenosylmethionine and s-methylmethionine permeases from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 274:28096–28105
Isnard AD, Thomas D, Surdin-Kerjan Y (1996) The study of methionine uptake in Saccharomyces cerevisiae reveals a new family of amino acid permeases. J Mol Biol 262:473–484
Schreve JL, Garrett JM (2004) Yeast Agp2p and Agp3p function as amino acid permeases in poor nutrient conditions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 313:745–751
Andreasson C, Neve EP, Ljungdahl PO (2004) Four permeases import proline and the toxic proline analouge azetidine-2-carboxylate into yeast. Yeast 21:193–199
Ter Schure E, Van Riel N, Verrips C (2000) The role of ammonia metabolism in nitrogen catabolite repression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. FEMS Microbiol Rev 24:67–83
Jauniaux JC, Vandenbol M, Vissers S, Broman K, Grenson M (1987) Nitrogen catabolite regulation of proline permease in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Eur J Biochem 164:601–606
Stewart GG, Hill AE, Russell I (2013) 125th anniversary review: developments in brewing and distilling yeast strains. J Inst Brew 119:202–220
Albertin W, Marullo P (2012) Polyploidy in fungi: evolution after whole-genome duplication. Proc Natl Acad Sci 279:2497–2509
Magasanik B, Kaiser C (2002) Nitrogen regulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Gene 290:1–18
Benjamin PM, Wu J-I, Mitchell AP, Magasanik B (1989) Three regulatory systems control expression of glutamine synthetase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae at the level of transcription. Mol Gen Genet 217:370–377
Minehart PL, Magasanik B (1992) Sequence of the GLN1 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: role of the upstream region in regulation of glutamine synthetase expression. J Bacteriol 174:1828–1836
Hinnebusch A (1992) General and pathway-specific regulatory mechanisms controlling the synthesis of amino acid biosynthetic enzymes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In: Jones EW, Pringle JR and Broach JR (eds) The molecular and cellular biology of the yeast saccharomyces: gene expression. Cold Spring Harbor, NY, USA
Maragoudakis M, Holmes H, Strassman M (1967) Control of lysine biosynthesis in yeast by a feedback mechanism. J Bacteriol 93:1677–1680
Tucci A, Ceci L (1972) Homocitrate synthase from yeast. Arch Biochem Biophys 153:742–750
El Alami M, Feller A, Piérard A, Dubois E (2000) Characterisation of a tripartite nuclear localisation sequence in the regulatory protein Lys14 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Curr Genet 38:78–86
Holmberg S, Litske Petersen JG (1988) Regulation of isoleucine-valine biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Curr Genet 13:207–217
Velasco JA, Cansado J, Pefia MC, Kawakami T, Laborda J, Notario V (1993) Cloning of the dihydroxyacid dehydratase-encoding gene (ILV3) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Gene 137:179–185
Forlani N, Martegani E, Alberghina L (1991) Posttranscriptional regulation of the expression of MET2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochim Biophys Acta 1089:47–53
Hansen J, Kielland-Brandt MC (1996) Inactivation of MET2 in brewer’s yeast increases the level of sulfite in beer. J Biotechnol 50:75–87
Jones EW, Fink GR (1982) Regulation of amino acid and nucleotide biosynthesis in yeast. In: Strathern, JN, Jones, EW, Broach, JR (eds) The molecular biology of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae: metabolism and gene expression. Cold Spring Harbor, New York
Baroni M, Livian S, Martegani E, Alberghina L (1986) Molecular cloning and regulation of the expression of the MET2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Gene 46:71–78
Avendano A, Deluna A, Olivera H, Valenzuela L, Gonzalez A (1997) GDH3 encodes a glutamate dehydrogenase isozyme, a previously unrecognized route for glutamate biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol 179:5594–5597
Avendano A, Riego L, Deluna A, Aranda C, Romero G, Ishida C, Vazquez-Acevedo M, Rodarte B, Recillas-Targa F, Valenzuela L, Zonszein S, Gonzalez A (2005) Swi/SNF-GCN5-dependent chromatin remodelling determines induced expression of GDH3, one of the paralogous genes responsible for ammonium assimilation and glutamate biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Microbiol 57:291–305
Xu S, Falvey DA, Brandriss MC (1995) Roles of URE2 and GLN3 in the proline utilization pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Biol Cell 15:2321–2330
Takagi H (2008) Proline as a stress protectant in yeast: physiological functions, metabolic regulations, and biotechnological applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 81:211–223
Ljungdahl PO, Daignan-Fornier B (2012) Regulation of amino acid, nucleotide, and phosphate metabolism in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 190:885–929
Iraqui I, Vissers S, Cartiaux M, Urrestarazu A (1998) Characterisation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ARO8 and ARO9 genes encoding aromatic aminotransferases I and II reveals a new aminotransferase subfamily. Mol Genet Genomics 257:238–248
Dickinson JR, Salgado LE, Hewlins MJ (2003) The catabolism of amino acids to long chain and complex alcohols in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 278:8028–8034
Vuralhan Z, Luttik MA, Tai SL, Boer VM, Morais MA, Schipper D, Almering MJ, Kotter P, Dickinson JR, Daran JM, Pronk JT (2005) Physiological characterization of the ARO10-dependent, broad-substrate-specificity 2-oxo acid decarboxylase activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Biol 71:3276–3284
Hohmann S (1991) Characterization of PDC6, a third structural gene for pyruvate decarboxylase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol 173:7963–7969
Hohmann S, Cederberg H (1990) Autoregulation may control the expression of yeast pyruvate decarboxylase structural genes PDC1 and PDC5. Eur J Biochem 188:615–621
Vidal EE, de Billerbeck GM, Simoes DA, Schuler A, Francois JM, de Morais MA Jr (2013) Influence of nitrogen supply on the production of higher alcohols/esters and expression of flavour-related genes in cachaca fermentations. Food Chem 138:701–708
Romagnoli G, Luttik MAH, Kötter P, Pronk JT, Daran JM (2012) Substrate specificity of thiamine-pyrophosphate-dependent 2-oxo-acid decarboxylases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:7538–7548
Arevalo-Rodriguez M, Pan X, Boecke JD, Heitman J (2004) FKBP12 controls aspartate pathway flux in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to prevent toxic intermediate accumulation. Eukaryot Cell 3:1287–1296
Styger G, Jacobson D, Bauer F (2011) Identifying genes that impact on aroma profiles produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the production of higher alcohols. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 91:713–730
Styger G, Jacobson D, Prior BA (2013) Genetic analysis of the metabolic pathways responsible for aroma metabolite production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97:4429–4442
Fujii T, Nagasawa N, Iwamatsu A, Bogaki T, Tamai Y, Hamachi M (1994) Molecular cloning, sequence analysis and expression of the yeast alcohol acetyltransferase gene. Appl Environ Biol 60:2786–2792
Yoshioka K, Hashimoto H (1981) Ester formation by alcohol acetyltransferase from brewers’ yeast. Agric Biol Chem 45:2183–2190
Lilly M, Lambrechts MG, Pretorius IS (2000) Effect of increased yeast alcohol acetyltransferase activity on flavor profiles of wine and distillates. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:744–753
Saerens SMG, Delvaux F, Verstrepen KJ, Van Dijck P, Thevelein JM, Delvaux FR (2008) Parameters affecting ethyl ester production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae during fermentation. Appl Environ Biol 74:454–461
Saerens SMG, Delvaux FR, Verstrepen KJ, Thevelein JM (2010) Production and biological function of volatile esters in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microb Biotechnol 3:165–177
Andorrà I, Berradre M, Esteve-Zarzoso B, Guillamón JM (2012) Effect of mixed culture fermentations on yeast populations and aroma profile. LWT Food Sci Technol 49:8–13
Higgins VJ, Beckhouse AG, Oliver AD, Rogers PJ, Dawes IW (2003) Yeast genome-wide expression analysis identifies a strong ergosterol and oxidative stress response during the initial stages of an industrial lager fermentation. Appl Environ Biol 69:4777–4787106
Meilgaard MC (1975) Flavor chemistry of beer: part II: flavor and threshold of 239 aroma volatiles. MBAA Techn Quart 12:151–168
Krüger E, Anger HM (1990) Kennzahlen zur Betriebskontrolle und Qualitätsbeschreibung in der Brauwirtschaft. Behr’s Verlag GmbH & Co, Hamburg
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. Daniel and Dr. Spanier for supplying the Microarray Scanner. We would also like to thank Dr. Geilinger for her excellent help with programming R. This work was supported by the DFG (Deutsche Forschungs Gemeinschaft) in cooperation with Prof. Dr. Thomas Hofmann.
Conflict of interest
None.
Compliance with Ethics Requirements
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Procopio, S., Brunner, M. & Becker, T. Differential transcribed yeast genes involved in flavour formation and its associated amino acid metabolism during brewery fermentation. Eur Food Res Technol 239, 421–439 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-014-2236-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-014-2236-6