Abstract
Rationale
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is known to affect brain serotonin (5-HT) neurons in experimental animals. However, its effects on humans are more difficult to infer. Serotonin is implicated in the body’s ability to modulate the effects of pain and to regulate mood.
Objective
The aim of this research is to test nociceptive responses and mood in MDMA users as an index of central 5-HT function.
Method
Measurements of pain tolerance were obtained using the cold-pressor test for 15 polydrug users who regularly use MDMA, 3–4 days after the most recent usage, and ten matched polydrug users who do not use MDMA. A rating on mood was obtained for each participant using the Nowlis Mood Adjective checklist.
Results
Measurements of pain tolerance and mood were significantly lower in the MDMA group. A positive correlation between mood and pain tolerance was found in the MDMA group, whereas no correlation was found between these variables in the non-MDMA group
Conclusion
This study found an association between pain tolerance and MDMA usage and confirmed the association between MDMA and depressed mood. The current results suggest that MDMA, at least in the short term, may cause serotonin-mediated alterations in pain sensitivity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Berkley KJ (1997) Sex differences in pain. Behav Brain Sci 20:371–380
Crisp T, Stafinsky JL, Boja JW, Schecter MD (1989) The antinociceptive effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 34:497–501
Croft RJ, Mackay AJ, Mills AT, Gruzelier JG (2001) The relative contributions of ecstasy and cannabis to cognitive impairment. Psychopharmacology 153:373–379
Curran HV (2000) Is MDMA neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and methodological problems in research. Neuropsychobiology 42:34–41
Curran HV, Travill RA (1997) Mood and cognitive effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘‘ecstasy’’) : week-end ‘‘high’’ followed by mid-week ‘‘low”. Addiction 92:821–831
Davison D, Parrott AC (1997) Ecstasy (MDMA) in recreational users: self-reported psychological and physiological effects. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 12:221–226
Daws EC, Irvine RJ, Callaghan PD, Toop NP, White JM, Bochner F (2000) Differential behavioural and neurochemical effects of para-methoxyamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in the rat. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 24:955–977
Fishbain D (2000) Evidence-based data on pain relief with antidepressants. Ann Med 32:305–316
Fischer CA, Haizidimitriou G, Katz JL, Ricuarte GA (1995) Reorganisation of ascending serotonin axon projections in animals previously exposed to the recreational drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. J Neurosci 15:5476–5485
Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Ampollini R, Giusti F, Delsignore R, Raggi MA, Laviola G, Macchia T, Brambilla F (2001) Experimentally induced aggressive behaviour in subjects with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”) use history: psychobiological correlates. J Subst Abuse 13:471–491
Gershon S (1986) Chronic pain: hypothesised mechanism and rationale for treatment. Neuropsychobiology 15:22–27
Green AR, Cross AJ, Goodwin GM (1995) Review of the pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or “ecstasy”). Pharmacology 119:247–260
Hellström B, Lundberg U (2000) Pain perception to the cold pressor test during the menstrual cycle in relation to estrogen levels and a comparison with men. Int Physiol Behav Sci 35:130–139
Liebmann PM, Lehofer M, Schonauer-Cejpek M, Legl T, Pernhaupt G, Moser M, Schauenstein K (1994) Pain sensitivity in former opioid addicts. Lancet 344:1031–1032
Lin HQ, Burden PM, Christie MJ, Johnston GA (1999) The anxiogenic-like and anxiolytic-like effects of MDMA on mice in the elevated plus-maze: a comparison with amphetamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 62:403–408
Maldonado E, Navarro JF (2000) Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) on anxiety in mice tested in the light-dark box. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 24:463–472
Maldonado E, Navarro JF (2001) MDMA (‘‘ecstasy’’) exhibits an anxiogenic-like activity in social encounters between male mice. Pharmacol Res 44:27–31
McCann UD, Ridenour A, Shaham Y, Ricaurte GA (1994) Serotonin neurotoxicity after (±)3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine: a controlled study in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 10:129–138
Merrill J (1996) Ecstasy and neurodegeneration: advice is that “less is more”. BMJ 313:423
Morley KC, McGregor IS (2000) (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”) increases social interaction in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 408:41–49
Morley-Fletcher S, Bianchi M, Gerra G, Laviola G (2002) Acute and carryover effects in mice of MDMA (‘‘ecstasy’’) administration during periadolescence. Eur J Pharmacol 448:31–38
Nishisawa S, Mzengeza S, Diksic M (1999) Acute effects of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine on brain serotonin synthesis in the dog studied by positron emission tomography. Neurochem Int 34:33–40
Nowlis V (1965) Research with the mood adjective checklist. In: Tomkins SS, Izard CE (eds) Affect, cognition and personality. Springer, New York
Parrot AC (2001) Human psychopharmacology of ecstasy (MDMA): a review of 15 years of empirical research. Hum Psychopharmacol 16:557–577
Parrott AC, Lasky J (1998) Ecstasy (MDMA) effects upon mood and cognition: before, during and after a Saturday night dance. Psychopharmacology 139:261–268
Parrott AC, Stuart M (1997) Ecstasy (MDMA), amphetamine and LSD: comparative mood profiles in recreational polydrug users. Hum Psychopharmacol 12:501–504
Ricaurte GA, DeLanney L, Irwin I, Langston JW (1988) Toxic effects of MDMA on central serotonergic neurons in the primate: importance of route and frequency of administration. Brain Res 446:165–168
Ricaurte GA, DeLanney LE, Wiener SG, Irwin, I, Langston J.W (1989) 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid in cerebrospinal fluid reflects serotonergic damage induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in CNS of non-human primates. Brain Res 474:359–363
Ricaurte GA, Martello AL, Katz JL, Martello MB (1992) Lasting effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on central serotonergic neurons in nonhuman primates: neuro-chemical observations. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 261:616–622
Sandkuhler J, Gebhart GF (1984) Relative contributions of the nucleus raphe magnus and adjacent medullary reticular formation to the inhibition by stimulation in the periaqueductal gray of a spinal nociceptive reflex in the pentobarbital-anesthetized rat. Brain Res 305:77–87
Schifano F, Di Furia L, Forza G, Minicuci N, Bricolo R (1998) MDMA (“ecstasy”) consumption in the context of polydrug abuse: a report on 150 patients. Drug Alcohol Depend 52:85–90
Solowij K, Hall W, Lee N (1992) Recreational MDMA use in Sydney: a profile of ecstasy users and their experience with the drug. Br J Addict 87:1161–1172
Solowij N (1993) Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). Curr Opin Psychiatry 6:411–415
Teicher MH, Andersen SL (1999) Limbic serotonin turnover plunges during puberty. Poster presented at the Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, Miami
Weisenberg M. Raz T, Hener T (1998) The influence of film-induced mood on pain perception. Pain 76:365–375
Willis WD, Westlund KN (1997) Neuroanatomy of the pain system and of the pathways that modulate pain. A comprehensive and recent review, not for the faint-hearted. J Clin Neurophys 14:2–31
Zimmerman M (1984) Basic concept of pain and pain therapy. Drug Res 34:1053–1059
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
O’Regan, M.C., Clow, A. Decreased pain tolerance and mood in recreational users of MDMA. Psychopharmacology 173, 446–451 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-003-1748-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-003-1748-8