Abstract
This work aims to investigate the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V parts produced by selective laser melting (SLM) in the early stage of solid-state diffusion bonding process. A thermomechanical simulator is employed to carry out the experiment. In the experiment, three diffusion temperatures (850°C, 900°C, and 950°C) are adopted, and the pressure is kept constant. It is found that the higher diffusion temperature reduces the voids on the bonding interface and part interior, and thus it improves the mechanical properties of the joint. The diffusion bonding joints consist of criss-cross acicular α′ martensitic structure. The volume fraction of martensitic α′ decreases with the increase of bonding temperature. Finally, the underlying mechanism of morphological evolution on the diffusion plane is analyzed. The results provide insights on the bonding mechanism of SLM-produced Ti6Al4V in solid-state diffusion joining.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
Data will be available upon request.
Code availability
Not applicable
References
Liu S, Shin YC (2019) Additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V alloy: a review. Mater Des 164:107552
Oliveira JP, Santos TG, Miranda RM (2020) Revisiting fundamental welding concepts to improve additive manufacturing: from theory to practice. Prog Mater Sci 107:100590
Oliveira JP, LaLonde AD, Ma J (2020) Processing parameters in laser powder bed fusion metal additive manufacturing. Mater Des 193:108762
Mo DF, Song TF, Fang YJ, Jiang XS, Luo CQ, Simpson MD, Luo ZP (2018) A review on diffusion bonding between titanium alloys and stainless steels. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2018:1–15
Oliveira JP, Panton B, Zeng Z, Andrei CM, Zhou Y, Miranda RM, Fernandes FB (2016) Laser joining of NiTi to Ti6Al4V using a niobium interlayer. Acta Mater 105:9–15
Liu HJ, Feng XL (2011) Microstructures and interfacial quality of diffusion bonded TC21 titanium alloy joints. Trans Nonferrous Metals Soc China 21(1):58–64
Liu H, Cao J, He P, Feng JC (2009) Effect of hydrogen on diffusion bonding of commercially pure titanium and hydrogenated Ti6Al4V alloys. Int J Hydrog Energy 34(2):1108–1113
Feng JC, Liu H, He P, Cao J (2007) Effects of hydrogen on diffusion bonding of hydrogenated Ti6Al4V alloy containing 0.3 wt% hydrogen at fast heating rate. Int J Hydrog Energy 32(14):3054–3058
Zhang H, Li J, Ma P, Xiong J, Zhang F (2018) Study on microstructure and impact toughness of TC4 titanium alloy diffusion bonding joint. Vacuum 152:272–277
Lee HS, Yoon JH, Park CH, Ko YG, Shin DH, Lee CS (2007) A study on diffusion bonding of superplastic Ti–6Al–4V ELI grade. J Mater Process Technol 187:526–529
Kato H, Shibata M, Yoshikawa K (1986) Diffusion welding of Ti/Ti and Ti/stainless steel rods under phase transformation in air. Mater Sci Technol 2(4):405–409
Rybin VV, Greenberg BA, Antonova OV, Kar’kina LE, Inozemtsev AV, Semenov VA, Patselov AM (2007) Examining the bimetallic joint orthorhombic titanium aluminide and titanium alloy (diffusion welding). Weld J-New York 86(7):205
Duarte LI, Ramos AS, Vieira MF, Viana F, Vieira MT, Koçak M (2006) Solid-state diffusion bonding of gamma-TiAl alloys using Ti/Al thin films as interlayers. Intermetallics 14(10-11):1151–1156
Ustinov AI, Falchenko YV, Ishchenko AY, Kharchenko GK, Melnichenko TV, Muraveynik AN (2008) Diffusion welding of γ-TiAl based alloys through nano-layered foil of Ti/Al system. Intermetallics 16(8):1043–1045
Samavatian M, Zakipour S, Paidar M (2017) Effect of bonding pressure on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V diffusion-bonded joint. Weld World 61(1):69–74
Motyka M, Nowak WJ, Wierzba B, Chrominski W (2020) Characterization of the interface between α and β titanium alloys in the diffusion couple. Metall Mater Trans A 51:6584–6591
Ferguson B, Ramulu M (2019) Surface tracking of diffusion bonding void closure and its application to titanium alloys. Int J Mater Form 13:517–531
Aydın K, Kaya Y, Kahraman N (2012) Experimental study of diffusion welding/bonding of titanium to copper. Mater Des 37:356–368
He P, Yue X, Zhang JH (2008) Hot pressing diffusion bonding of a titanium alloy to a stainless steel with an aluminum alloy interlayer. Mater Sci Eng A 486(1-2):171–176
Balasubramanian M (2015) Development of processing windows for diffusion bonding of Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy and 304 stainless steel with silver as intermediate layer. Trans Nonferrous Metals Soc China 25(9):2932–2938
Wang D, Cao J, Li W, Dai X, Feng J (2017) Zr hydrogenation by cathodic charging and its application in TC4 alloy diffusion bonding. Int J Hydrog Energy 42(9):6350–6359
Tuppen SJ, Bache MR, Voice WE (2005) A fatigue assessment of dissimilar titanium alloy diffusion bonds. Int J Fatigue 27(6):651–658
Simões S, Viana F, Ramos AS, Vieira MT, Vieira MF (2018) Microstructural characterization of dissimilar titanium alloys joints using Ni/Al nanolayers. Metals 8(9):715
Song TF, Jiang XS, Shao ZY, Mo DF, Zhu DG, Zhu MH, Young CH, Luo ZP (2017) Interfacial microstructure and mechanical properties of diffusion-bonded joints of titanium TC4 (Ti-6Al-4V) and Kovar (Fe-29Ni-17Co) alloys. J Iron Steel Res Int 24(10):1023–1031
Fu X, Wang X, Wang Q, Zhou W, Xu H, Liu D, Li Z, Chen G (2018) Effect of surface self-nanocrystallization on diffusion bonding between a titanium alloy and a TiAl-based alloy. J Mater Eng Perform 27(10):5551–5560
Li B, Chen Z, He W, Zhou T, Wang Y, Peng L, Li J, Liu Q (2019) Effect of titanium grain orientation on the growth of compounds at diffusion bonded titanium/steel interfaces. Mater Charact 148:243–251
Scherillo F, Astarita A, Carrino L, Pirozzi C, Prisco U, Squillace A (2019) Linear friction welding of Ti-6Al-4V parts produced by electron beam melting. Mater Manuf Process 34(2):201–207
vPrashanth KG, Damodaram R, Maity T, Wang P, Eckert J (2017) Friction welding of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V parts. Mater Sci Eng A 704:66–71
Prashanth KG, Damodaram R, Scudino S, Wang Z, Rao KP, Eckert J (2014) Friction welding of Al–12Si parts produced by selective laser melting. Mater Des 57:632–637
Hu X, Xue Z, Zhao G, Yun J, Shi D, Yang X (2019) Laser welding of a selective laser melted Ni-base superalloy: microstructure and high temperature mechanical property. Mater Sci Eng A 745:335–345
Nahmany M, Rosenthal I, Benishti I, Frage N, Stern A (2015) Electron beam welding of AlSi10Mg workpieces produced by selected laser melting additive manufacturing technology. Addit Manuf 8:63–70
Wang J, Wang Y, Shi J (2020) On efficiency and effectiveness of finite volume method for thermal analysis of selective laser melting. Eng Comput 37(6):2155–2175
Yan X, Yin S, Chen C, Huang C, Bolot R, Lupoi R, Kuang M, Ma W, Coddet C, Liao H, Liu M (2018) Effect of heat treatment on the phase transformation and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V fabricated by selective laser melting. J Alloys Compd 764:1056–1071
Jin N, Yan Z, Wang Y, Cheng H, Zhang H (2020) Effects of heat treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V lattice materials. Int J Mech Sci 190:106042
Kahraman N (2007) The influence of welding parameters on the joint strength of resistance spot-welded titanium sheets. Mater Des 28(2):420–427
Moridi A, Demir AG, Caprio L, Hart AJ, Previtali B, Colosimo BM (2019) Deformation and failure mechanisms of Ti–6Al–4V as built by selective laser melting. Mater Sci Eng A 768:138456
Ter Haar G, Becker T (2018) Selective laser melting produced Ti-6Al-4V: post-process heat treatments to achieve superior tensile properties. Materials 11(1):146
Zhou W, Chew KG (2003) Effect of welding on impact toughness of butt-joints in a titanium alloy. Mater Sci Eng A 347(1-2):180–185
Zhang J, Lu Z, Jia L, Xie H, Tao S, Wei X, Ma Y (2019) Critical conditions and grain growth model for dynamic recrystallization of Cu-Ni-Si alloy. Results Phys 15:102593
Yang J, Yu H, Wang Z, Zeng X (2017) Effect of crystallographic orientation on mechanical anisotropy of selective laser melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Mater Charact 127:137–145
Wang SC, Aindow M, Starink MJ (2003) Effect of self-accommodation on α/α boundary populations in pure titanium. Acta Mater 51(9):2485–2503
He L, Dehghan-Manshadi A, Dippenaar RJ (2012) The evolution of microstructure of Ti–6Al–4V alloy during concurrent hot deformation and phase transformation. Mater Sci Eng A 549:163–167
Quan GZ, Zhang L, Wang X (2017) Evolution of grain refinement degree induced by dynamic recrystallization for Nimonic 80A during hot compression process and its FEM analysis. Vacuum 139:51–63
Quan GZ, Mao A, Luo GC, Liang JT, Wu DS, Zhou J (2013) Constitutive modeling for the dynamic recrystallization kinetics of as-extruded 3Cr20Ni10W2 heat-resistant alloy based on stress–strain data. Mater Des (1980-2015) 52:98–107
Derby B, Wallach ER (1982) Theoretical model for diffusion bonding. Metal Sci 16(1):49–56
Derby B, Wallach ER (1984) Diffusion bonding: development of theoretical model. Metal Sci 18(9):427–431
Guo ZX, Ridley N (1987) Modelling of diffusion bonding of metals. Mater Sci Technol 3(11):945–953
Wu GQ, Huang Z, Li HY (2005) Modelling of solid-state diffusion bonding with a real rough surface. In Materials Science Forum, 475, 3185-3188. Trans Tech Publications Ltd.
Wang R, Tang Y, Li S, Ai Y, Li Y, Xiao B, Zhu L’, Liu X, Bai S (2020) Effect of lattice distortion on the diffusion behavior of high-entropy alloys. J Alloys Compd 825:154099
Tsai KY, Tsai MH, Yeh JW (2013) Sluggish diffusion in Co–Cr–Fe–Mn–Ni high-entropy alloys. Acta Mater 61(13):4887–4897
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
J.W. conducted the experiment, analyzed the results, and developed the manuscript draft. Y.W. analyzed the results and contributed to the manuscript writing. J.S. supervised the project and finalized the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable
Consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, J., Wang, Y. & Shi, J. Solid-state diffusion joining of Ti6Al4V parts produced by selective laser melting: joint characteristics and bonding mechanism. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 115, 1037–1048 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07254-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07254-5