Abstract
Brown dwarfs are the coolest class of stellar objects known to date. Our present perception is that brown dwarfs follow the principles of star formation, and that brown dwarfs share many characteristics with planets. Being the darkest and lowest mass stars known makes brown dwarfs also the coolest stars known. This has profound implication for their spectral fingerprints. Brown dwarfs cover a range of effective temperatures which cause brown dwarfs atmospheres to be a sequence that gradually changes from a M-dwarf-like spectrum into a planet-like spectrum. This further implies that below an effective temperature of \(\lesssim \)2,800 K, clouds form already in atmospheres of objects marking the boundary between M-Dwarfs and brown dwarfs. Recent developments have sparked the interest in plasma processes in such very cool atmospheres: sporadic and quiescent radio emission has been observed in combination with decaying X-ray activity indicators across the fully convective boundary.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The geometrical cloud extension, or cloud height, can be defined in various ways. Woitke and Helling (2004) used the degree of condensation for Ti (their Eq. 16) for defining the cloud height. The distance between the gas pressure at the nucleation maximum and the gas pressure where all cloud particles have evaporated determine the cloud height in Helling et al. (2011b).
The formation of weather clouds on Earth involve water condensation of pre-existing seeds particles (condensation nuclei) which origin from volcano outbreaks, wood fires, ocean salt spray, sand storms, and also cosmic-ray-induced ion-ion cluster reactions (see CERN CLOUD experiment). Noctilucent clouds in the upper Earth atmosphere, however, require the recondensation of meteoritic material to understand their existence (Saunders et al. 2007).
Venot et al. (2012)’s chemical network is publicly available under http://kida.obs.u-bordeaux1.fr/.
References
Ackerman AS, Marley MS (2001) Precipitating condensation clouds in substellar atmospheres. Ap J 556:872–884. doi:10.1086/321540; arXiv:astro-ph/0103423
Ackerman AS, Marley MS (2013) Erratum: ”Precipitating condensation clouds in substellar atmospheres”. Ap J 765:75. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/765/1/75
Allard F, Hauschildt PH, Alexander DR, Starrfield S (1997) Model atmospheres of very low mass stars and brown dwarfs. ARA A 35:137–177. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.35.1.137
Allard F, Hauschildt PH, Alexander DR, Tamanai A, Schweitzer A (2001) The limiting effects of dust in brown dwarf model atmospheres. Ap J 556:357–372. doi:10.1086/321547; arXiv:astro-ph/0104256
Allard F, Homeier D, Freytag B, Schaffenberger W, Rajpurohit AS (2013) Progress in modeling very low mass stars, brown dwarfs, and planetary mass objects. Memorie della Societa Astronomica Italiana Supplementi 24:128. arXiv:1302.6559
Allers KN, Liu MC (2013a) A near-infrared spectroscopic study of young field ultracool dwarfs. Ap J 772:79. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/772/2/79; arXiv:1305.4418
Allers KN, Liu MC (2013b) A near-infrared spectroscopic study of young field ultracool dwarfs: additional analysis. Mem Societa Astronomica Italiana 84:1089. arXiv:1307.7153
Anderson DR et al (2011) WASP-30b: a 61 \(\text{ M }{}_{Jup}\) brown dwarf transiting a V = 12, F8 star. Ap J l 726:L19. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/726/2/L19; arXiv:1010.3006
Antonova A, Doyle JG, Hallinan G, Golden A, Koen C (2007) Sporadic long-term variability in radio activity from a brown dwarf. A&A 472:257–260. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077231; arXiv:0707.0634
Antonova A, Hallinan G, Doyle JG, Yu S, Kuznetsov A, Metodieva Y, Golden A, Cruz KL (2013) Volume-limited radio survey of ultracool dwarfs. A&A 549:A131. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118583; arXiv:1212.3464
Apai D, Radigan J, Buenzli E, Burrows A, Reid IN, Jayawardhana R (2013a) HST spectral mapping of L/T transition brown dwarfs reveals cloud thickness variations. Ap J 768:121. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/768/2/121; arXiv:1303.4151
Apai D, Radigan J, Buenzli E, Burrows A, Reid IN, Jayawardhana R (2013b) HST spectral mapping of L/T transition brown dwarfs reveals cloud thickness variations. Ap J 768:121. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/768/2/121; arXiv:1303.4151
Artigau É, Bouchard S, Doyon R, Lafrenière D (2009) Photometric variability of the T2.5 brown dwarf SIMP J013656.5+093347: evidence for evolving weather patterns. Ap J 701:1534–1539. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/701/2/1534; arXiv:0906.3514
Audard M, Osten RA, Brown A, Briggs KR, Güdel M, Hodges-Kluck E, Gizis JE (2007) A Chandra X-ray detection of the L dwarf binary Kelu-1: simultaneous Chandra and very large array observations. A&A 471:L63–L66. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078093; arXiv:0707.1882
Bailer-Jones CAL, Mundt R (2001) Variability in ultra cool dwarfs: evidence for the evolution of surface features. A&A 367:218–235. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20000416; arXiv:astro-ph/0012224
Bailey RL, Helling C, Hodosán G, Bilger C, Stark CR (2013) Ionisation in atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets VI: Properties of large-scale discharge events. arXiv:1312:6789
Barman TS, Hauschildt PH, Allard F (2001) Irradiated planets. Ap J 556:885–895. doi:10.1086/321610; arXiv:astro-ph/0104262
Barman TS, Macintosh B, Konopacky QM, Marois C (2011) Clouds and chemistry in the atmosphere of extrasolar planet HR8799b. Ap J 733:65. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/733/1/65; arXiv:1103.3895
Barstow JK, Aigrain S, Irwin PGJ, Fletcher LN, Lee JM (2013) Constraining the atmosphere of GJ 1214b using an optimal estimation technique. MNRAS 434:2616–2628. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1204; arXiv:1306.6567
Becklin EE, Zuckerman B (1988) A low-temperature companion to a white dwarf star. Nature 336:656–658. doi:10.1038/336656a0
Beichman C, Gelino CR, Kirkpatrick JD, Cushing MC, Dodson-Robinson S, Marley MS, Morley CV, Wright EL (2014) WISE Y dwarfs as probes of the brown dwarf-exoplanet connection. arXiv:1401:1194
Benneke B, Seager S (2012) Atmospheric retrieval for super-earths: uniquely constraining the atmospheric composition with transmission spectroscopy. Ap J 753:100. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/753/2/100; arXiv:1203.4018
Benz AO, Güdel M (1994) X-ray/microwave ratio of flares and coronae. A&A 285:621–630
Bergemann M, Ruchti G, Serenelli A, Feltzing S, Alvez-Brito A, Asplund M, Bensby T, Heiter U, Korn A, Lind K, Marino A, Jofre P, Nordlander T, Ryde N, Gilmore G, Randich S, Binney J, Bonifacio P, Drew J, Ferguson A, Jeffries R, Micela G, Negueruela I, Prusti T, Rix HW, Vallenari A, Alfaro Navarro E, Bragaglia A, Morbidelli L, Pancino E, Recio-Blanco A, Smiljanic R, Hill V, Lardo C, de Laverny P, Magrini L, Sacco G, Costado M, Kordopatis G, Tautvaisiene G (2014) The Gaia-ESO survey: radial metallicity gradients and age-metallicity relation of stars in the Milky Way disk. arXiv:1401.4437
Berger E (2002) Flaring up all over-radio activity in rapidly rotating late M and L dwarfs. Ap J 572:503–513. doi:10.1086/340301; arXiv:astro-ph/0111317
Berger E (2006) Radio observations of a large sample of late m, l, and t dwarfs: the distribution of magnetic field strengths. Ap J 648:629–636. doi:10.1086/505787
Berger E, Rutledge RE, Reid IN, Bildsten L, Gizis JE, Liebert J, Martín E, Basri G, Jayawardhana R, Brandeker A, Fleming TA, Johns-Krull CM, Giampapa MS, Hawley SL, Schmitt JHMM (2005) The magnetic properties of an L dwarf derived from simultaneous radio, X-ray, and \(\text{ H }\alpha \) observations. Ap J 627:960–973. doi:10.1086/430343; arXiv:astro-ph/0502384
Berger E, Rutledge RE, Phan-Bao N, Basri G, Giampapa MS, Gizis JE, Liebert J, Martín E, Fleming TA (2009) Periodic radio and \(\text{ H }\alpha \) emission from the L dwarf binary 2MASSW J0746425+200032: exploring the magnetic field topology and radius of an L dwarf. Ap J 695:310–316. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/695/1/310; arXiv:0809.0001
Beuermann K, Dreizler S, Hessman FV, Backhaus U, Boesch A, Husser TO, Nortmann L, Schmelev A, Springer R (2013) The eclipsing post-common envelope binary CSS21055: a white dwarf with a probable brown-dwarf companion. A&A 558:A96. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322241; arXiv:1312.5088
Bihain G, Rebolo R, Béjar VJS, Villó-Pérez I, Díaz-Sánchez A, Pérez-Garrido A, Caballero JA, Bailer-Jones CAL, Barrado y Navascués D, Eislöffel J, Forveille T, Goldman B, Henning T, Martín EL, Mundt R (2009) Candidate free-floating super-Jupiters in the young \(\sigma \) Orionis open cluster. A&A 506:1169–1182. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912210; arXiv:0909.0802
Bilger C, Rimmer P, Helling C (2013) Small hydrocarbon molecules in cloud-forming brown dwarf and giant gas planet atmospheres. MNRAS 435:1888–1903. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1378; arXiv:1307.2565
Bonnefoy M, Marleau GD, Galicher R, Beust H, Lagrange AM, Baudino JM, Chauvin G, Borgniet S, Meunier N, Rameau J, Boccaletti A, Cumming A, Helling C, Homeier D, Allard F, Delorme P (2013) The near-infrared spectral energy distribution of \(\beta \) Pictoris b. A&A 555:A107. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220838; arXiv:1302.1160
Bozhinova I, Helling Ch, Scholz A (2014) Planetary host stars: Evaluating uncertainties in ultra-cool model atmospheres. MNRAS. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014 arXiv:1405.5416B
Browning MK, Basri G, Marcy GW, West AA, Zhang J (2010) Rotation and magnetic activity in a sample of M-dwarfs. Ap J 139:504–518. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/139/2/504
Buenzli E, Apai D, Morley CV, Flateau D, Showman AP, Burrows A, Marley MS, Lewis NK, Reid IN (2012) Vertical atmospheric structure in a variable brown dwarf: pressure-dependent phase shifts in simultaneous hubble space telescope-spitzer light curves. Ap Jl 760:L31. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/760/2/L31; arXiv:1210.6654
Buenzli E, Apai D, Radigan J, Reid IN, Flateau D (2014) Brown dwarf photospheres are patchy: a hubble space telescope near-infrared spectroscopic survey finds frequent low-level variability. Ap J 782:77. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/782/2/77; arXiv:1312.5294
Burgasser AJ (2004) Discovery of a second L subdwarf in the two micron all sky survey. Ap Jl 614:L73–L76. doi:10.1086/425418; arXiv:astro-ph/0409179
Burgasser AJ, Kirkpatrick JD (2006) Discovery of the coolest extreme subdwarf. Ap J 645:1485–1497. doi:10.1086/504375; arXiv:astro-ph/0603382
Burgasser AJ, Putman ME (2005) Quiescent radio emission from southern late-type M dwarfs and a spectacular radio flare from the M8 dwarf DENIS 1048–3956. Ap J 626:486–497. doi:10.1086/429788; arXiv:astro-ph/0502365
Burgasser AJ, Kirkpatrick JD, Brown ME, Reid IN, Burrows A, Liebert J, Matthews K, Gizis JE, Dahn CC, Monet DG, Cutri RM, Skrutskie MF (2002) The spectra of T dwarfs I: near-infrared data and spectral classification. Ap J 564:421–451. doi:10.1086/324033; arXiv:astro-ph/0108452
Burgasser AJ, Kirkpatrick JD, Burrows A, Liebert J, Reid IN, Gizis JE, McGovern MR, Prato L, McLean IS (2003) The first substellar subdwarf? Discovery of a metal-poor L dwarf with Halo kinematics. Ap J 592:1186–1192. doi:10.1086/375813; arXiv:astro-ph/0304174
Burgasser AJ, Geballe TR, Leggett SK, Kirkpatrick JD, Golimowski DA (2006) A unified near-infrared spectral classification scheme for T dwarfs. Ap J 637:1067–1093. doi:10.1086/498563; arXiv:astro-ph/0510090
Burgasser AJ, Vrba FJ, Lépine S, Munn JA, Luginbuhl CB, Henden AA, Guetter HH, Canzian BC (2008) Parallax and luminosity measurements of an L subdwarf. Ap J 672:1159–1166. doi:10.1086/523810; arXiv:0709.1373
Burgasser AJ, Gillon M, Faherty JK, Radigan J, Amaury H M J, Plavchan P, Street R, Jehin E, Delrez L, Opitom C (2014) A monitoring campaign for Luhman 16AB I: detection of resolved near-infrared spectroscopic variability. arXiv:1402.2342
Burleigh MR, Hogan E, Dobbie PD, Napiwotzki R, Maxted PFL (2006) A near-infrared spectroscopic detection of the brown dwarf in the post common envelope binary WD0137-349. MNRAS 373:L55–L59. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00242.x; arXiv:astro-ph/0609366
Burleigh MR, Steele PR, Dobbie PD, Farihi J, Napiwotzki R, Maxted PFL, Barstow MA, Jameson RF, Casewell SL, Gaensicke BT, Marsh TR (2011) Brown dwarf companions to white dwarfs. In: Schuh S, Drechsel H, Heber U (eds) American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol 1331, pp 262–270. doi:10.1063/1.3556209; arXiv:1102.0505
Burningham B, Cardoso CV, Smith L, Leggett SK, Smart RL, Mann AW, Dhital S, Lucas PW, Tinney CG, Pinfield DJ, Zhang Z, Morley C, Saumon D, Aller K, Littlefair SP, Homeier D, Lodieu N, Deacon N, Marley MS, van Spaandonk L, Baker D, Allard F, Andrei AH, Canty J, Clarke J, Day-Jones AC, Dupuy T, Fortney JJ, Gomes J, Ishii M, Jones HRA, Liu M, Magazzú A, Marocco F, Murray DN, Rojas-Ayala B, Tamura M (2013) 76 T dwarfs from the UKIDSS LAS: benchmarks, kinematics and an updated space density. MNRAS 433:457–497. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt740; arXiv:1304.7246
Burningham B, Smith L, Cardoso CV, Lucas PW, Burgasser AJ, Jones HRA, Smart RL (2014) The discovery of a T6.5 subdwarf. arXiv:1401.5982
Burrows A, Hubbard WB, Lunine JI (1989) Theoretical models of very low mass stars and brown dwarfs. Ap J 345:939–958. doi:10.1086/167964
Burrows A, Hubbard WB, Lunine JI, Liebert J (2001) The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets. Rev Mod Phys 73:719–765. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719; arXiv:astro-ph/0103383
Burrows A, Burgasser AJ, Kirkpatrick JD, Liebert J, Milsom JA, Sudarsky D, Hubeny I (2002) Theoretical spectral models of T dwarfs at short wavelengths and their comparison with data. Ap J 573:394–417. doi:10.1086/340584; arXiv:astro-ph/0109227
Burrows A, Sudarsky D, Lunine JI (2003) Beyond the T dwarfs: theoretical spectra, colors, and detectability of the coolest brown dwarfs. Ap J 596:587–596. doi:10.1086/377709; arXiv:astro-ph/0304226
Burrows A, Sudarsky D, Hubeny I (2006) L and T dwarf models and the L to T transition. Ap J 640:1063–1077. doi:10.1086/500293; arXiv:astro-ph/0509066
Burrows A, Heng K, Nampaisarn T (2011) The dependence of brown dwarf radii on atmospheric metallicity and clouds: theory and comparison with observations. Ap J 736:47. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/736/1/47; arXiv:1102.3922
Casewell SL, Dobbie PD, Hodgkin ST, Moraux E, Jameson RF, Hambly NC, Irwin J, Lodieu N (2007) Proper motion L and T dwarf candidate members of the Pleiades. MNRAS 378:1131–1140. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11848.x; arXiv:0704.1578
Casewell SL, Jameson RF, Burleigh MR, Dobbie PD, Roy M, Hodgkin ST, Moraux E (2011) Methane band and Spitzer mid-IR imaging of L and T dwarf candidates in the Pleiades. MNRAS 412:2071–2078. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.18044.x; arXiv:1011.4218
Casewell SL, Burleigh MR, Wynn GA, Alexander RD, Napiwotzki R, Lawrie KA, Dobbie PD, Jameson RF, Hodgkin ST (2012) WD0837+185: the formation and evolution of an extreme mass-ratio white-dwarf-brown-dwarf binary in Praesepe. Ap Jl 759:L34. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/759/2/L34; arXiv:1210.0446
Casewell SL, Burleigh MR, Lawrie KA, Maxted PFL, Dobbie PD, Napiwotzki R (2013) Irradiated brown dwarfs. Mem Societa Astronomica Italiana 84:1022 arXiv:1401.1405
Catlow CRA, Bromley ST, Hamad S, Mora-Fonz M, Sokol AA, Woodley SM (2010) Modelling nano-clusters and nucleation. Phys Chem Chem Phys (Inc Faraday Trans) 12:786. doi:10.1039/b916069h
Chabrier G, Baraffe I, Allard F, Hauschildt P (2000) Evolutionary models for very low-mass stars and brown dwarfs with dusty atmospheres. Ap J 542:464–472. doi:10.1086/309513; arXiv:astro-ph/0005557
Chabrier G, Johansen A, Janson M, Rafikov R (2014) Giant planet and brown dwarf formation. arXiv:1401:7559
Cheng JY, Rockosi CM, Morrison HL, Schönrich RA, Lee YS, Beers TC, Bizyaev D, Pan K, Schneider DP (2012) Metallicity gradients in the Milky Way disk as observed by the SEGUE survey. Ap J 746:149. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/746/2/149; arXiv:1110.5933
Clarke FJ, Oppenheimer BR, Tinney CG (2002) A mini-survey for variability in early L dwarfs. MNRAS 335:1158–1162. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05691.x; arXiv:astro-ph/0205463
Clarke FJ, Hodgkin ST, Oppenheimer BR, Robertson J, Haubois X (2008) A search for J-band variability from late-L and T brown dwarfs. MNRAS 386:2009–2014. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13135.x
Cooper CS, Sudarsky D, Milsom JA, Lunine JI, Burrows A (2003) Modeling the formation of clouds in brown dwarf atmospheres. Ap J 586:1320–1337. doi:10.1086/367763
Crossfield IJM, Biller B, Schlieder JE, Deacon NR, Bonnefoy M, Homeier D, Allard F, Buenzli E, Henning T, Brandner W, Goldman B, Kopytova T (2014) A global cloud map of the nearest known brown dwarf. Nature 505:654–656. doi:10.1038/nature12955; arXiv:1401.8145
Cruz KL, Kirkpatrick JD, Burgasser AJ (2009) Young L dwarfs identified in the field: a preliminary low-gravity, optical spectral sequence from L0 to L5. Ap J 137:3345–3357. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/2/3345; arXiv:0812.0364
Currie T, Burrows A, Itoh Y, Matsumura S, Fukagawa M, Apai D, Madhusudhan N, Hinz PM, Rodigas TJ, Kasper M, Pyo TS, Ogino S (2011) A combined subaru/VLT/MMT 1–5 \(\mu \text{ m }\) study of planets orbiting HR 8799: implications for atmospheric properties, masses, and formation. Ap J 729:128. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/729/2/128; arXiv:1101.1973
Cushing MC, Looper D, Burgasser AJ, Kirkpatrick JD, Faherty J, Cruz KL, Sweet A, Sanderson RE (2009) 2MASS J06164006–6407194: the first Outer Halo L subdwarf. Ap J 696:986–993. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/696/1/986; arXiv:0902.1059
Cushing MC, Saumon D, Marley MS (2010) SDSS J141624.08+134826.7: Blue L dwarfs and non-equilibrium chemistry. Ap J 140:1428–1432. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/140/5/1428; arXiv:1009.2802
Cushing MC, Kirkpatrick JD, Gelino CR, Griffith RL, Skrutskie MF, Mainzer A, Marsh KA, Beichman CA, Burgasser AJ, Prato LA, Simcoe RA, Marley MS, Saumon D, Freedman RS, Eisenhardt PR, Wright EL (2011) The discovery of Y dwarfs using data from the wide-field infrared survey explorer (WISE). Ap J 743:50. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/743/1/50; arXiv:1108.4678
Cushing MC, Kirkpatrick JD, Gelino CR, Mace GN, Skrutskie MF, Gould A (2014) Three new cool brown dwarfs discovered with the wide-field infrared survey explorer (WISE) and an improved spectrum of the Y0 dwarf WISE J041022.71+150248.4. arXiv:1402.1378
Delfosse X, Forveille T, Perrier C, Mayor M (1998) Rotation and chromospheric activity in field M dwarfs. A&A 331:581–595
Dieterich SB, Henry TJ, Jao WC, Winters JG, Hosey AD, Riedel AR, Subasavage JP (2013) The solar neighborhood XXXII: the hydrogen burning limit. arXiv:1312:1736
Dobbie PD, Burleigh MR, Levan AJ, Barstow MA, Napiwotzki R, Holberg JB, Hubeny I, Howell SB (2005) A near-infrared spectroscopic search for very-low-mass cool companions to notable DA white dwarfs. MNRAS 357:1049–1058. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08720.x; arXiv:astro-ph/0412222
Dupuy TJ, Kraus AL (2013) Distances, luminosities, and temperatures of the coldest known substellar objects. Science 341:1492–1495. doi:10.1126/science.1241917; arXiv:1309.1422
Dupuy TJ, Liu MC, Bowler BP, Cushing MC, Helling C, Witte S, Hauschildt P (2010) Studying the physical diversity of late-M dwarfs with dynamical masses. Ap J 721:1725–1747. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/721/2/1725; arXiv:1007.4197
Enoch ML, Brown ME, Burgasser AJ (2003) Photometric variability at the L/T dwarf boundary. Ap J 126:1006–1016. doi:10.1086/376598; arXiv:astro-ph/0305048
Faherty JK, Cruz KL, Rice EL, Riedel A (2013a) Young brown dwarfs as giant exoplanet analogs. Mem Societa Astronomica Italiana 84:955. arXiv:1307.8413
Faherty JK, Rice EL, Cruz KL, Mamajek EE, Núñez A (2013b) 2MASS J035523.37+113343.7: a young, dusty, nearby, isolated brown dwarf resembling a giant exoplanet. Ap J 145:2. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/1/2; arXiv:1206.5519
Faherty JK, Rice EL, Cruz KL, Mamajek EE, Núñez A (2013c) 2MASS J035523.37+113343.7: a young, dusty, nearby, isolated brown dwarf resembling a giant exoplanet. Ap J 145:2. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/1/2; arXiv:1206.5519
Farihi J, Christopher M (2004) A possible brown dwarf companion to the white dwarf GD 1400. Ap J 128:1868–1871. doi:10.1086/423919; arXiv:astro-ph/0407036
Fletcher LN, Orton GS, Yanamandra-Fisher P, Fisher BM, Parrish PD, Irwin PGJ (2009) Retrievals of atmospheric variables on the gas giants from ground-based mid-infrared imaging. Icarus 200:154–175. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.11.019
Fletcher LN, Baines KH, Momary TW, Showman AP, Irwin PGJ, Orton GS, Roos-Serote M, Merlet C (2011) Saturn’s tropospheric composition and clouds from Cassini/VIMS 4.6-5.1 \(\mu \text{ m }\) nightside spectroscopy. Icarus 214:510–533. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2011.06.006
Fortney JJ, Lodders K, Marley MS, Freedman RS (2008) A unified theory for the atmospheres of the hot and very hot Jupiters: two classes of irradiated atmospheres. Ap J 678:1419–1435. doi:10.1086/528370; arXiv:0710.2558
Freytag B, Allard F, Ludwig HG, Homeier D, Steffen M (2010) The role of convection, overshoot, and gravity waves for the transport of dust in M dwarf and brown dwarf atmospheres. A&A 513:A19. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913354; arXiv:1002.3437
Geballe TR, Knapp GR, Leggett SK, Fan X, Golimowski DA, Anderson S, Brinkmann J, Csabai I, Gunn JE, Hawley SL, Hennessy G, Henry TJ, Hill GJ, Hindsley RB, Ivezić Ž, Lupton RH, McDaniel A, Munn JA, Narayanan VK, Peng E, Pier JR, Rockosi CM, Schneider DP, Smith JA, Strauss MA, Tsvetanov ZI, Uomoto A, York DG, Zheng W (2002) Toward spectral classification of L and T dwarfs: infrared and optical spectroscopy and analysis. Ap J 564:466–481. doi:10.1086/324078; arXiv:astro-ph/0108443
Gelino CR, Marley MS, Holtzman JA, Ackerman AS, Lodders K (2002) L dwarf variability: I-band observations. Ap J 577:433–446. doi:10.1086/342150; arXiv:astro-ph/0205305
Gillon M, Triaud AHMJ, Jehin E, Delrez L, Opitom C, Magain P, Lendl M, Queloz D (2013) Fast-evolving weather for the coolest of our two new substellar neighbours. A&A 555:L5. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321620; arXiv:1304.0481
Girardin F, Artigau É, Doyon R (2013) In search of dust clouds: photometric monitoring of a sample of late L and T dwarfs. Ap J 767:61. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/61
Gizis JE (1997) M-subdwarfs: spectroscopic classification and the metallicity scale. Ap J 113:806–822. doi:10.1086/118302; arXiv:astro-ph/9611222
Gizis JE, Monet DG, Reid IN, Kirkpatrick JD, Liebert J, Williams RJ (2000) New neighbors from 2MASS: activity and kinematics at the bottom of the main sequence. Ap J 120:1085–1099. doi:10.1086/301456; arXiv:astro-ph/0004361
Gizis JE, Shipman HL, Harvin JA (2005) First ultraviolet spectrum of a brown dwarf: evidence for \(\text{ H }_{2}\) fluorescence and accretion. Ap J 630:L89–L91. doi:10.1086/462414; arXiv:astro-ph/0507429
Göres A (1993) The formation of PAHs in C-type star environments. In: Klare G (ed) Reviews in modern astronomy, vol 6, pp 165–178
Güdel M, Benz AO (1993) X-ray/microwave relation of different types of active stars. Ap J 405:L63–L66. doi:10.1086/186766
Gustafsson B, Edvardsson B, Eriksson K, Jørgensen UG, Nordlund Å, Plez B (2008) A grid of MARCS model atmospheres for late-type stars I: methods and general properties. A&A 486:951–970. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809724; arXiv:0805.0554
Güttler C, Blum J, Zsom A, Ormel CW, Dullemond CP (2010) The outcome of protoplanetary dust growth: pebbles, boulders, or planetesimals? I: mapping the zoo of laboratory collision experiments. A&A 513:A56. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912852; arXiv:0910.4251
Hall PB (2002) 2MASSI J1315309–264951: An L dwarf with strong and variable \(\text{ H }\alpha \) emission. Ap J 564:L89–L92. doi:10.1086/339020; arXiv:astro-ph/0112241
Hallinan G, Antonova A, Doyle JG, Bourke S, Brisken WF, Golden A (2006) Rotational modulation of the radio emission from the m9 dwarf tvlm 513–46546: broadband coherent emission at the substellar boundary? Ap J 653:690–699. doi:10.1086/508678
Hallinan G, Bourke S, Lane C, Antonova A, Zavala RT, Brisken WF, Boyle RP, Vrba FJ, Doyle JG, Golden A (2007) Periodic bursts of coherent radio emission from an ultracool dwarf. Ap J 663:L25–L28. doi:10.1086/519790; arXiv:0705.2054
Hallinan G, Antonova A, Doyle JG, Bourke S, Lane C, Golden A (2008) Confirmation of the electron cyclotron maser instability as the dominant source of radio emission from very low mass stars and brown dwarfs. Ap J 684:644–653. doi:10.1086/590360; http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApJ...684..644H; arXiv:0805.4010
Heinze AN, Metchev S, Apai D, Flateau D, Kurtev R, Marley M, Radigan J, Burgasser AJ, Artigau É, Plavchan P (2013) Weather on other worlds I: detection of periodic variability in the L3 dwarf DENIS-P J1058.7–1548 with precise multi-wavelength photometry. Ap J 767:173. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/767/2/173; arXiv:1303.2948
Helling C, Fomins A (2013) Modelling the formation of atmospheric dust in brown dwarfs and planetary atmospheres. R Soc Lond Philos Trans Ser A 371(10):581. doi:10.1098/rsta.2011.0581
Helling C, Woitke P (2006) Dust in brown dwarfs V: growth and evaporation of dirty dust grains. A&A 455:325–338. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20054598
Helling C, Oevermann M, Lüttke MJH, Klein R, Sedlmayr E (2001) Dust in brown dwarfs I: dust formation under turbulent conditions on microscopic scales. A&A 376:194–212. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010937
Helling C, Klein R, Woitke P, Nowak U, Sedlmayr E (2004) Dust in brown dwarfs IV: dust formation and driven turbulence on mesoscopic scales. A&A 423:657–675. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034514; arXiv:astro-ph/0404272
Helling C, Ackerman A, Allard F, Dehn M, Hauschildt P, Homeier D, Lodders K, Marley M, Rietmeijer F, Tsuji T, Woitke P (2008a) A comparison of chemistry and dust cloud formation in ultracool dwarf model atmospheres. MNRAS 391:1854–1873. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13991.x; arXiv:0809.3657
Helling C, Dehn M, Woitke P, Hauschildt PH (2008b) Consistent simulations of substellar atmospheres and nonequilibrium dust cloud formation. Ap J 675:L105–L108. doi:10.1086/533462; arXiv:0801.3733
Helling C, Woitke P, Thi WF (2008c) Dust in brown dwarfs and extra-solar planets I: chemical composition and spectral appearance of quasi-static cloud layers. A&A 485:547–560. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078220 ; arXiv:0803.4315
Helling C, Jardine M, Mokler F (2011a) Ionization in atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets II: dust-induced collisional ionization. Ap J 737:38. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/737/1/38; arXiv:1105.4409
Helling C, Jardine M, Witte S, Diver DA (2011b) Ionization in atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets I: the role of electron Avalanche. Ap J 727:4. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/727/1/4; arXiv:1010.4389
Helling C, Jardine M, Stark C, Diver D (2013) Ionization in atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets III: breakdown conditions for mineral clouds. Ap J 767:136. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/767/2/136; arXiv:1301.7586
Henry RBC, Worthey G (1999) The distribution of heavy elements in spiral and elliptical galaxies. PASP 111:919–945. doi:10.1086/316403; arXiv:astro-ph/9904017
Hill C, Yurchenko SN, Tennyson J (2013) Temperature-dependent molecular absorption cross sections for exoplanets and other atmospheres. Icarus 226:1673–1677. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.07.028; arXiv:1205.6514
Iraci LT, Phebus BD, Stone BM, Colaprete A (2010) Water ice cloud formation on Mars is more difficult than presumed: Laboratory studies of ice nucleation on surrogate materials. Icarus 210:985–991. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.07.020
James DJ, Jardine MM, Jeffries RD, Randich S, Collier Cameron A, Ferreira M (2000) X-ray emission from nearby M-dwarfs: the super-saturation phenomenon. MNRAS 318:1217–1226. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03838.x; arXiv:astro-ph/0007159
Joergens V (ed) (2014) 50 years of brown dwarfs: from prediction to discovery to forefront of research. Astrophys Sp Sci Libr vol 401. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01162-2
Khandrika H, Burgasser AJ, Melis C, Luk C, Bowsher E, Swift B (2013) A Search for photometric variability in L- and T-type brown dwarf atmospheres. Ap J 145:71. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/3/71; arXiv:1301.0545
Kirkpatrick JD (2013) Cold brown dwarfs with WISE: Y dwarfs and the field mass function. Astronomische Nachrichten 334:26–31. doi:10.1002/asna.201211759
Kirkpatrick JD, Reid IN, Liebert J, Cutri RM, Nelson B, Beichman CA, Dahn CC, Monet DG, Gizis JE, Skrutskie MF (1999) Dwarfs cooler than “M” the definition of spectral type ‘L’ using discoveries from the 2 micron all-sky survey (2MASS). Ap J 519:802–833. doi:10.1086/307414
Kirkpatrick JD, Cruz KL, Barman TS, Burgasser AJ, Looper DL, Tinney CG, Gelino CR, Lowrance PJ, Liebert J, Carpenter JM, Hillenbrand LA, Stauffer JR (2008) A sample of very young field L dwarfs and implications for the brown dwarf “Lithium Test” at early ages. Ap J 689:1295–1326. doi:10.1086/592768; arXiv:0808.3153
Kirkpatrick JD, Looper DL, Burgasser AJ, Schurr SD, Cutri RM, Cushing MC, Cruz KL, Sweet AC, Knapp GR, Barman TS, Bochanski JJ, Roellig TL, McLean IS, McGovern MR, Rice EL (2010) Discoveries from a near-infrared proper motion survey using multi-epoch two micron all-sky survey data. Ap J 190:100–146. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/190/1/100; arXiv:1008.3591
Kirkpatrick JD, Cushing MC, Gelino CR, Griffith RL, Skrutskie MF, Marsh KA, Wright EL, Mainzer A, Eisenhardt PR, McLean IS, Thompson MA, Bauer JM, Benford DJ, Bridge CR, Lake SE, Petty SM, Stanford SA, Tsai CW, Bailey V, Beichman CA, Bloom JS, Bochanski JJ, Burgasser AJ, Capak PL, Cruz KL, Hinz PM, Kartaltepe JS, Knox RP, Manohar S, Masters D, Morales-Calderón M, Prato LA, Rodigas TJ, Salvato M, Schurr SD, Scoville NZ, Simcoe RA, Stapelfeldt KR, Stern D, Stock ND, Vacca WD (2011) The first hundred brown dwarfs discovered by the wide-field infrared survey explorer (WISE). Ap J 197:19. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/197/2/19; arXiv:1108.4677
Kirkpatrick JD, Gelino CR, Cushing MC, Mace GN, Griffith RL, Skrutskie MF, Marsh KA, Wright EL, Eisenhardt PR, McLean IS, Mainzer AK, Burgasser AJ, Tinney CG, Parker S, Salter G (2012) Further defining spectral type “Y” and exploring the low-mass end of the field brown dwarf mass function. Ap J 753:156. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/753/2/156; arXiv:1205.2122
Kirkpatrick JD, Cushing MC, Gelino CR, Beichman CA, Tinney CG, Faherty JK, Schneider A, Mace GN (2013) Discovery of the Y1 dwarf WISE J064723.23–623235.5. Ap J 776:128. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/776/2/128; arXiv:1308.5372
Kirkpatrick JD, Schneider A, Fajardo-Acosta S, Gelino CR, Mace GN, Wright EL, Logsdon SE, McLean IS, Cushing MC, Skrutskie MF, Eisenhardt PR, Stern D, Balokovic M, Burgasser AJ, Faherty JK, Lansbury GB, Rich JA, Skrzypek N, Fowler JW, Cutri RM, Masci FJ, Conrow T, Grillmair CJ, McCallon HL, Beichman CA, Marsh KA (2014) The AllWISE motion survey and the quest for cold subdwarfs. arXiv:1402:0661
Knutson HA, Charbonneau D, Cowan NB, Fortney JJ, Showman AP, Agol E, Henry GW, Everett ME, Allen LE (2009) Multiwavelength constraints on the day-night circulation patterns of HD 189733b. Ap J 690:822–836. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/690/1/822; arXiv:0802.1705
Konopka U, Mokler F, Ivlev AV, Kretschmer M, Morfill GE, Thomas HM, Rothermel H, Fortov VE, Lipaev AM, Molotkov VI, Nefedov AP, Baturin YM, Budarin Y, Ivanov AI, Roth M (2005) Charge-induced gelation of microparticles. New J Phys 7:227. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/227
Lee JM, Heng K, Irwin PGJ (2013) Atmospheric retrieval analysis of the directly imaged exoplanet HR 8799b. Ap J 778:97. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/778/2/97; arXiv:1307.1404
Lépine S, Rich RM, Shara MM (2007) Revised metallicity classes for low-mass stars: dwarfs (dM), subdwarfs (sdM), extreme subdwarfs (esdM), and ultrasubdwarfs (usdM). Ap J 669:1235–1247. doi:10.1086/521614; arXiv:0707.2993
Liebert J, Kirkpatrick JD, Cruz KL, Reid IN, Burgasser A, Tinney CG, Gizis JE (2003) A flaring L5 dwarf: the nature of \(\text{ H }\alpha \) emission in very low mass (sub)stellar objects. Ap J 125:343–347. doi:10.1086/345514; arXiv:astro-ph/0210348
Line MR, Fortney JJ, Marley MS, Sorahana S (2014) An approach for retrieving temperatures and abundances in brown dwarf atmospheres. arXiv:1403:6412
Littlefair SP, Dhillon VS, Marsh TR, Shahbaz T, Martín EL, Copperwheat C (2008) Optical variability of the ultracool dwarf TVLM 513–46546: evidence for inhomogeneous dust clouds. MNRAS 391:L88–L92. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00562.x; arXiv:0809.2193
Liu MC, Dupuy TJ, Leggett SK (2010) Discovery of a highly unequal-mass binary T dwarf with Keck Laser guide star adaptive optics: a coevality test of substellar theoretical models and effective temperatures. Ap J 722:311–328. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/722/1/311; arXiv:1008.2200
Lodders K, Fegley B (2002) Atmospheric chemistry in giant planets, brown dwarfs, and low-mass dwarf stars I: carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Icarus 155:393–424. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6740
Lodders K, Fegley B Jr (2006) Chemistry of low mass substellar objects. p 1. doi:10.1007/3-540-30313-8_1
Lodieu N, Zapatero Osorio MR, Martín EL, Solano E, Aberasturi M (2010) GTC/OSIRIS spectroscopic identification of a faint L subdwarf in the UKIRT infrared deep sky survey. Ap J 708:L107–L111. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/708/2/L107; arXiv:0912.3364
Lodieu N, Espinoza Contreras M, Zapatero Osorio MR, Solano E, Aberasturi M, Martín EL (2012) New ultracool subdwarfs identified in large-scale surveys using virtual observatory tools I: UKIDSS LAS DR5 vs. SDSS DR7. A&A 542:A105. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118717; arXiv:1204.4328
Lucas PW, Roche PF, Allard F, Hauschildt PH (2001) Infrared spectroscopy of substellar objects in Orion. MNRAS 326:695–721. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04666.x; arXiv:astro-ph/0105154
Ludwig HG, Allard F, Hauschildt PH (2002) Numerical simulations of surface convection in a late M-dwarf. A&A 395:99–115. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021153; arXiv:astro-ph/0208584
Luhman KL (2012) The formation and early evolution of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs. ARA&A 50:65–106. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081811-125528; arXiv:1208.5800
Luhman KL (2013) Discovery of a binary brown dwarf at 2 pc from the Sun. Ap J 767:L1. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/767/1/L1; arXiv:1303.2401
Luhman KL (2014) Discovery of a\({}^{\sim }\)250 K brown dwarf at 2 pc from the Sun. Ap J 786:L18. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/786/2/L18; arXiv:1404.6501
Luhman KL, Burgasser AJ, Bochanski JJ (2011) Discovery of a candidate for the coolest known brown dwarf. Ap J 730:L9. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/730/1/L9; arXiv:1102.5411
Luhman KL, Burgasser AJ, Labbé I, Saumon D, Marley MS, Bochanski JJ, Monson AJ, Persson SE (2012) Confirmation of one of the coldest known brown dwarfs. Ap J 744:135. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/2/135; arXiv:1110.4353
Lunine JI, Hubbard WB, Marley MS (1986) Evolution and infrared spectra of brown dwarfs. Ap J 310:238–260. doi:10.1086/164678
Mace GN, Kirkpatrick JD, Cushing MC, Gelino CR, McLean IS, Logsdon SE, Wright EL, Skrutskie MF, Beichman CA, Eisenhardt PR, Kulas KR (2013) The exemplar T8 subdwarf companion of Wolf 1130. Ap J 777:36. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/777/1/36; arXiv:1309.1500
Madhusudhan N, Seager S (2009) A temperature and abundance retrieval method for exoplanet atmospheres. Ap J 707:24–39. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/707/1/24; arXiv:0910.1347
Madhusudhan N, Burrows A, Currie T (2011) Model atmospheres for massive gas giants with thick clouds: application to the HR 8799 planets and predictions for future detections. Ap J 737:34. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/737/1/34; arXiv:1102.5089
Marley MS, Saumon D, Goldblatt C (2010) A patchy cloud model for the L to T dwarf transition. Ap J 723:L117–L121. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/723/1/L117; arXiv:1009.6217
Marley MS, Saumon D, Cushing M, Ackerman AS, Fortney JJ, Freedman R (2012) Masses, radii, and cloud properties of the HR 8799 planets. Ap J 754:135. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/754/2/135; arXiv:1205.6488
Marley MS, Ackerman AS, Cuzzi JN, Kitzmann D (2013) Clouds and hazes in exoplanet atmospheres. arXiv:1301:5627
Martín EL, Delfosse X, Basri G, Goldman B, Forveille T, Zapatero Osorio MR (1999) Spectroscopic classification of late-M and L field dwarfs. Ap J 118:2466–2482. doi:10.1086/301107
Maxted PFL, Napiwotzki R, Dobbie PD, Burleigh MR (2006) Survival of a brown dwarf after engulfment by a red giant star. Nature 442:543–545. doi:10.1038/nature04987; arXiv:astro-ph/0608054
McLean M, Berger E, Irwin J, Forbrich J, Reiners A (2011) Periodic radio emission from the M7 dwarf 2MASS J13142039+1320011: implications for the magnetic field topology. Ap J 741:27. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/741/1/27; arXiv:1107.1516
Metchev S, Apai D, Radigan J, Artigau É, Heinze A, Helling C, Homeier D, Littlefair S, Morley C, Skemer A, Stark C (2013) Clouds in brown dwarfs and giant planets. Astronomische Nachrichten 334:40–43. doi:10.1002/asna.201211776
Mihalas DM (1978) Stellar atmospheres, 2nd edn. W. H. Freeman & Co Ltd. ISBN-10: 0716703599; ISBN-13: 978-0716703594
Mohanty S, Basri G, Shu F, Allard F, Chabrier G (2002) Activity in very cool stars: magnetic dissipation in late M and L dwarf atmospheres. Ap J 571:469–486. doi:10.1086/339911; arXiv:astro-ph/0201518
Morin J, Donati JF, Petit P, Delfosse X, Forveille T, Jardine MM (2010) Large-scale magnetic topologies of late M dwarfs. MNRAS 407:2269–2286. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17101.x; arXiv:1005.5552
Morioka A, Miyoshi Y, Kitamura N, Misawa H, Tsuchiya F, Menietti JD, Honary F (2012) Fundamental characteristics of field-aligned auroral acceleration derived from akr spectra. JGR 117(A2):A02,213. doi:10.1029/2011ja017137
Morley CV, Fortney JJ, Marley MS, Visscher C, Saumon D, Leggett SK (2012) Neglected clouds in T and Y dwarf atmospheres. Ap J 756:172. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/756/2/172; arXiv:1206.4313
Morley CV, Marley MS, Fortney JJ, Lupu R (2014a) Spectral variability from the patchy atmospheres of T and Y dwarfs. Ap J arXiv:1406.0863
Morley CV, Marley MS, Fortney JJ, Lupu R, Saumon D, Greene T, Lodders K (2014b) Water clouds in Y dwarfs and exoplanets. Ap J. arXiv:1404:0005
Moses JI, Visscher C, Fortney JJ, Showman AP, Lewis NK, Griffith CA, Klippenstein SJ, Shabram M, Friedson AJ, Marley MS, Freedman RS (2011) Disequilibrium carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen chemistry in the atmospheres of HD 189733b and HD 209458b. Ap J 737:15. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/737/1/15; arXiv:1102.0063
Nakajima T, Oppenheimer BR, Kulkarni SR, Golimowski DA, Matthews K, Durrance ST (1995) Discovery of a cool brown dwarf. Nature 378:463–465. doi:10.1038/378463a0
Nichols JD, Burleigh MR, Casewell SL, Cowley SWH, Wynn GA, Clarke JT, West AA (2012) Origin of electron cyclotron maser induced radio emissions at ultracool dwarfs: magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling currents. Ap J 760(1):59. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/760/1/59
Noll KS, Geballe TR, Marley MS (1997) Detection of abundant carbon monoxide in the brown dwarf Gliese 229B. Ap J 489:L87. doi:10.1086/310954
Noyes RW, Hartmann LW, Baliunas SL, Duncan DK, Vaughan AH (1984) Rotation, convection, and magnetic activity in lower main-sequence stars. Ap J 279:763–777. doi:10.1086/161945
Osten RA, Hawley SL, Bastian TS, Reid IN (2006) The radio spectrum of TVLM 513–46546: constraints on the coronal properties of a late M dwarf. Ap J 637:518–521. doi:10.1086/498345; arXiv:astro-ph/0509762
Patience J, King RR, De Rosa RJ, Vigan A, Witte S, Rice E, Helling C, Hauschildt P (2012) Spectroscopy across the brown dwarf/planetary mass boundary I: near-infrared JHK spectra. A&A 540:A85. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118058; arXiv:1201.3921
Peña Ramírez K, Béjar VJS, Zapatero Osorio MR, Petr-Gotzens MG, Martín EL (2012) New isolated planetary-mass objects and the stellar and substellar mass function of the \(\sigma \) Orionis cluster. Ap J 754:30. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/754/1/30; arXiv:1205.4950
Pereira TMD, Asplund M, Collet R, Thaler I, Trampedach R, Leenaarts J (2013) How realistic are solar model atmospheres? A&A 554:A118. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321227; arXiv:1304.4932
Pinfield DJ, Jones HRA, Lucas PW, Kendall TR, Folkes SL, Day-Jones AC, Chappelle RJ, Steele IA (2006) Finding benchmark brown dwarfs to probe the substellar initial mass function as a function of time. MNRAS 368:1281–1295. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10213.x arXiv:astro-ph/0603320
Pizzolato N, Maggio A, Micela G, Sciortino S, Ventura P (2003) The stellar activity-rotation relationship revisited: dependence of saturated and non-saturated X-ray emission regimes on stellar mass for late-type dwarfs. A&A 397:147–157. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021560
Radigan J, Jayawardhana R, Lafrenière D, Artigau É, Marley M, Saumon D (2012) Large-amplitude variations of an L/T transition brown dwarf: multi-wavelength observations of patchy. High-contrast cloud features. Ap J 750:105. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/750/2/105; arXiv:1201.3403
Radigan J, Lafrenière D, Jayawardhana R, Artigau E (2014) Strong brightness variations signal cloudy-to-clear transition of brown dwarfs. arXiv:1404.3247
Rajpurohit AS, Reylé C, Schultheis M, Leinert C, Allard F, Homeier D, Ratzka T, Abraham P, Moster B, Witte S, Ryde N (2012) The very low mass multiple system LHS 1070: a testbed for model atmospheres for the lower end of the main sequence. A&A 545:A85. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219029; arXiv:1208.0452
Ravi V, Hallinan G, Hobbs G, Champion DJ (2011) The magnetosphere of the ultracool dwarf DENIS 1048–3956. Ap J 735:L2. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/735/1/L2; arXiv:1105.0990
Rebolo R, Zapatero Osorio MR, Martín EL (1995) Discovery of a brown dwarf in the Pleiades star cluster. Nature 377:129–131. doi:10.1038/377129a0
Reid IN, Burgasser AJ, Cruz KL, Kirkpatrick JD, Gizis JE (2001) Near-infrared spectral classification of late M and L dwarfs. Ap J 121:1710–1721. doi:10.1086/319418; arXiv:astro-ph/0012275
Reid IN, Cruz KL, Kirkpatrick JD, Allen PR, Mungall F, Liebert J, Lowrance P, Sweet A (2008) Meeting the cool neighbors X: ultracool dwarfs from the 2MASS all-sky data release. Ap J 136:1290–1311. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/3/1290
Reiners A, Basri G, Christensen UR (2009) Surprisingly weak magnetism on young accreting brown dwarfs. Ap J 697:373–379. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/697/1/373; arXiv:0903.0857
Rice EL, Faherty JK, Cruz K, Barman T, Looper D, Malo L, Mamajek EE, Metchev S, Shkolnik EL (2011) Juvenile ultracool dwarfs. In: Johns-Krull C, Browning MK, West AA (eds) 16th Cambridge workshop on cool stars, stellar systems, and the Sun, Astronomical Society of the Pacific conference series, vol 448, p 481. arXiv:1101.4231
Rimmer PB, Helling C (2013) Ionization in atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets IV: the effect of cosmic rays. Ap J 774:108. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/774/2/108; arXiv:1307.3257
Rimmer PB, Helling C, Bilger C (2014) The influence of galactic cosmic rays on ion-neutral hydrocarbon chemistry in the upper atmospheres of free-floating exoplanets. arXiv:1312.1138
Robinson TD, Marley MS (2014) Temperature fluctuations as a source of brown dwarf variability. arXiv:1403.2438
Rojas-Ayala B, Hilton EJ, Mann AW, Lépine S, Gaidos E, Bonfils X, Helling C, Henry TJ, Rogers LA, von Braun K, Youdin A (2013) M dwarf stars in the light of (future) exoplanet searches. Astronomische Nachrichten 334:155. doi:10.1002/asna.201211760; arXiv:1211.0544
Rossow WB (1978) Cloud microphysics: analysis of the clouds of Earth, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. Icarus 36:1–50. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(78)90072-6
Route M, Wolszczan A (2012) The arecibo detection of the coolest radio-flaring brown dwarf. Ap J 747(2):L22. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/747/2/l22
Sarro LM, Berihuete A, Carrión C, Barrado D, Cruz P, Isasi Y (2013) Properties of ultra-cool dwarfs with Gaia: an assessment of the accuracy for the temperature determination. A&A 550:A44. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219867; arXiv:1212.3096
Saumon D, Bergeron P, Lunine JI, Hubbard WB, Burrows A (1994) Cool zero-metallicity stellar atmospheres. Ap J 424:333–344. doi:10.1086/173892
Saumon D, Geballe TR, Leggett SK, Marley MS, Freedman RS, Lodders K, Fegley B Jr, Sengupta SK (2000) Molecular abundances in the atmosphere of the T dwarf GL 229B. Ap J 541:374–389. doi:10.1086/309410; astro-ph/0003353
Saunders RW, Forster PM, Plane JMC (2007) Potential climatic effects of meteoric smoke in the Earth’s paleo-atmosphere. Geophys Rev Lett 34:L16801. doi:10.1029/2007GL029648
Schmidt SJ, Cruz KL, Bongiorno BJ, Liebert J, Reid IN (2007) Activity and kinematics of ultracool dwarfs, including an amazing flare observation. Ap J 133:2258–2273. doi:10.1086/512158; arXiv:astro-ph/0701055
Showman AP, Kaspi Y (2013a) Atmospheric dynamics of brown dwarfs and directly imaged giant planets. Ap J 776:85. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/776/2/85; arXiv:1210.7573
Showman AP, Kaspi Y (2013b) Atmospheric dynamics of brown dwarfs and directly imaged giant planets. Ap J 776:85. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/776/2/85; arXiv:1210.7573
Sinclair JA, Helling C, Greaves JS (2010) The impact of stellar model spectra in disc detection. MNRAS 409:L49–L53. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2010.00945.x
Sivarani T, Lépine S, Kembhavi AK, Gupchup J (2009) SDSS J125637–022452: a high proper motion L subdwarf. Ap J 694:L140–L143. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/694/2/L140; arXiv:0901.3382
Siverd RJ et al (2012) KELT-1b: a strongly irradiated, highly inflated, short period, 27 Jupiter-mass companion transiting a Mid-F Star. Ap J 761:123. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/761/2/123; arXiv:1206.1635
Sorahana S, Yamamura I, Murakami H (2013) On the radii of brown dwarfs measured with AKARI near-infrared spectroscopy. Ap J 767:77. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/767/1/77; arXiv:1304.1259
Sorahana S, Suzuki TK, Yamamura I (2014) A signature of chromospheric activity in brown dwarfs revealed by 2.5-5.0 Micron AKARI spectra. arXiv:1401.5801
Southworth J (2009) Homogeneous studies of transiting extrasolar planets II: physical properties. MNRAS 394:272–294. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14274.x; arXiv:0811.3277
Spezzi L, Alves de Oliveira C, Moraux E, Bouvier J, Winston E, Hudelot P, Bouy H, Cuillandre JC (2012) Searching for planetary-mass T-dwarfs in the core of Serpens. A&A 545:A105. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219559; arXiv:1208.0702
Stark CR, Helling C, Diver DA, Rimmer PB (2013) Ionization in atmospheres of brown dwarfs and extrasolar planets. V. Alfvén ionization. Ap J 776:11. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/776/1/11; arXiv:1308.2991
Steele PR, Saglia RP, Burleigh MR, Marsh TR, Gänsicke BT, Lawrie K, Cappetta M, Girven J, Napiwotzki R (2013) NLTT 5306: the shortest period detached white dwarf+brown dwarf binary. MNRAS 429:3492–3500. doi:10.1093/mnras/sts620; arXiv:1212.2899
Stelzer B, Neuhäuser R (2003) X-ray emission from old and intermediate age brown dwarfs. In: Martín E (ed) Brown dwarfs, IAU symposium, vol 211, p 443. arXiv:astro-ph/0206284
Stelzer B, Micela G, Flaccomio E, Neuhäuser R, Jayawardhana R (2006) X-ray emission of brown dwarfs: towards constraining the dependence on age, luminosity, and temperature. A&A 448:293–304. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053677; arXiv:astro-ph/0511168
Stewart RT, Innis JL, Slee OB, Nelson GJ, Wright AE (1988) A relation between radio luminosity and rotation for late-type stars. Ap J 96:371–377. doi:10.1086/114815
Tinney CG, Tolley AJ (1999a) Searching for weather in brown dwarfs. MNRAS 304:119–126. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02297.x; arXiv:astro-ph/9809165
Tinney CG, Tolley AJ (1999b) Searching for weather in brown dwarfs. MNRAS 304:119–126. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02297.x; arXiv:astro-ph/9809165
Treumann R (2006) The electron-cyclotron maser for astrophysical application. A&A Rev 13(4):229–315. doi:10.1007/s00159-006-0001-y
Triaud AHMJ, Gillon M, Selsis F, Winn JN, Demory BO, Artigau E, Laughlin GP, Seager S, Helling C, Mayor M, Albert L, Anderson RI, Bolmont E, Doyon R, Forveille T, Hagelberg J, Leconte J, Lendl M, Littlefair S, Raymond S, Sahlmann J (2013) A search for rocky planets transiting brown dwarfs. arXiv:1304.7248
Tsuji T (2001) Unified model photospheres for ultracool dwarfs of types L and T. In: Jones HRA, Steele IA (eds) Ultracool dwarfs: new spectral types L and T, p 9. arXiv:astro-ph/0103395
Tsuji T (2002) Dust in the photospheric environment: unified cloudy models of M, L, and T dwarfs. Ap J 575:264–290. doi:10.1086/341262; arXiv:astro-ph/0204401
Tsuji T (2005) Dust in the photospheric environment III: a fundamental element in the characterization of ultracool dwarfs. Ap J 621:1033–1048. doi:10.1086/427747; arXiv:astro-ph/0411766
Tsuji T, Ohnaka K, Aoki W (1996a) Dust formation in stellar photospheres: a case of very low mass stars and a possible resolution on the effective temperature scale of M dwarfs. A&A 305:L1
Tsuji T, Ohnaka K, Aoki W, Nakajima T (1996b) Evolution of dusty photospheres through red to brown dwarfs: how dust forms in very low mass objects. A&A 308:L29–L32
Tsuji T, Nakajima T, Yanagisawa K (2004) Dust in the photospheric environment II: effect on the near-infrared spectra of L and T dwarfs. Ap J 607:511–529. doi:10.1086/383300; arXiv:astro-ph/0402192
Tsuji T, Yamamura I, Sorahana S (2011) AKARI observations of brown dwarfs II: \(\text{ CO }_{2}\) as probe of carbon and oxygen abundances in brown dwarfs. Ap J 734:73. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/734/2/73; arXiv:1105.6303
Venot O, Hébrard E, Agúndez M, Dobrijevic M, Selsis F, Hersant F, Iro N, Bounaceur R (2012) A chemical model for the atmosphere of hot Jupiters. A&A 546:A43. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219310; arXiv:1208.0560
Wada K, Tanaka H, Okuzumi S, Kobayashi H, Suyama T, Kimura H, Yamamoto T (2013) Growth efficiency of dust aggregates through collisions with high mass ratios. A&A 559:A62. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322259
Williams PKG (2013) The observed rotation/activity relations of ultracool dwarfs. Mem Societa Astronomica Italiana 84:1122
Williams PKG, Berger E, Zauderer BA (2013a) Quasi-quiescent radio emission from the first radio-emitting T dwarf. Ap J 767:L30. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/767/2/L30; arXiv:1301.2321
Williams PKG, Cook BA, Berger E (2013b) Trends in ultracool dwarf magnetism I: X-ray suppression and radio enhancement. arXiv:1310.6757
Wilson PA, Rajan A, Patience J (2014) The brown dwarf atmosphere monitoring (BAM) project I: the largest near-IR monitoring survey of L and T dwarfs. A&A 566:A111. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322995; arXiv:1404.4633
Witte S, Helling C, Hauschildt PH (2009) Dust in brown dwarfs and extra-solar planets II: cloud formation for cosmologically evolving abundances. A&A 506:1367–1380. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200811501; arXiv:0908.3597
Witte S, Helling C, Barman T, Heidrich N, Hauschildt PH (2011) Dust in brown dwarfs and extra-solar planets III: testing synthetic spectra on observations. A&A 529:A44. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014105
Woitke P (2006) Too little radiation pressure on dust in the winds of oxygen-rich AGB stars. A&A 460:L9–L12. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066322; arXiv:astro-ph/0609392
Woitke P, Helling C (2003) Dust in brown dwarfs II: the coupled problem of dust formation and sedimentation. A&A 399:297–313. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021734
Woitke P, Helling C (2004) Dust in brown dwarfs III: formation and structure of quasi-static cloud layers. A&A 414:335–350. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20031605
Yamamura I, Tsuji T, Tanabé T (2010) AKARI observations of brown dwarfs I: CO and \(\text{ CO }_{2}\) bands in the near-infrared spectra. Ap J 722:682–698. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/722/1/682; arXiv:1008.3732
Yuan TT, Kewley LJ, Swinbank AM, Richard J, Livermore RC (2011) Metallicity gradient of a lensed face-on spiral galaxy at Redshift 1.49. Ap J 732:L14. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/732/1/L14; arXiv:1103.3277
Zhang X, Showman AP (2014) Atmospheric circulation of brown dwarfs: jets, vortices, and time variability. arXiv:1403.2143
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
ChH highlights financial support of the European Community under the FP7 by an ERC starting grant. SLC acknowledges financial support of University of Leicester. V. Wild is thanked for ’large-scale metallicity gradients’. M. Marley, A. Scholz, I. Vorgul, P. Rimmer, T. Robinson, I. Leonhardt are thanked for reading the manuscript. The authors thank D. Saumon, M. Cushing and J.D. Kirkpatrick for kindly providing spectra. This research has benefited from the SpeX Prism Spectral Libraries, maintained by Adam Burgasser and the IRTF spectral library maintained by Mike Cushing. Most literature search was performed using the NASA Astrophysics Data System ADS. Our local computer support is highly acknowledged.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Helling, C., Casewell, S. Atmospheres of brown dwarfs. Astron Astrophys Rev 22, 80 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-014-0080-0
Received:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-014-0080-0