Abstract
Coded targets are used as reference targets with a known location during camera calibration, for robust searching of corresponding features between images during various applications of machine vision like object tracking, robot navigation or 3D measurement. In this paper, a target system for industrial photogrammetric applications is outlined. The methods which have been chosen emphasize maximum robustness, along with accuracy at the expense of computational efficiency, since photogrammetric measurements are mainly evaluated offline. The outlined system combines widely used photogrammetric circular coded target design with an automatic library generator. It also utilizes robust methods of target detection and recognition with error correction (in case of 60 15-bit targets, up to 1 bit confused or 2 bits occluded) along with preserving the low false-positive or confusion rate. Any error correction method for this type of targets was not introduced before. The solution also allows for the creation of versatile target libraries or to work with the existing target libraries of a number of commercial photogrammetric systems. The properties of the target system were tested under challenging conditions (including heavy noise, blur, occlusion and geometrical image transformations) and compared to state-of-the-art systems, e.g. TRITOP (GOM), or ArUco, which it outperforms. The target system is already used for the camera calibration of a specialized photogrammetric system utilized in the heavy industry environment.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
Data are available on request from the authors.
References
Bay, H., Ess, A., Tuytelaars, T., Van Gool, L.: Speeded-Up robust features (SURF). Comput. Vis. Image Underst. 110, 346–359 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cviu.2007.09.014
Zhang, Z.: A flexible new technique for camera calibration. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 22, 1330–1334 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1109/34.888718
Tsai, R.: A versatile camera calibration technique for high-accuracy 3D machine vision metrology using off-the-shelf TV cameras and lenses. IEEE J. Robot. Autom. 3, 323–344 (1987)
Forbes, K., Voigt, A., Bodika, N.: An inexpensive, automatic and accurate camera calibration method. In: Nicolls, F. (ed.) Thirteenth Annual Symposium of the Pattern Recognition Association of South Africa. University of Cape Town, Dept. of Electrical Engineering (2002)
Schneider, D., Schwalbe, E., Maas, H.: Validation of geometric models for fisheye lenses. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 64, 259–266 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2009.01.001
Luhmann, T., Robson, S., Kyle, S., Harley, I.: Close Range Photogrammetry. Whittles Publishing, Scotland (2011)
Luhmann, T.: Close range photogrammetry for industrial applications. Isprs J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 65, 558–569 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2010.06.003
Zhang, D., Liang, J., Guo, C., Liu, J., Zhang, X., Chen, Z.: Exploitation of photogrammetry measurement system. Opt. Eng. 49, 11 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1117/1.3364057
Hu, H., Liang, J., Xiao, Z., Tang, Z., Asundi, A., Wang, Y.: A four-camera videogrammetric system for 3-D motion measurement of deformable object. Opt. Lasers Eng. 50, 800–811 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2011.12.011
Bergamasco, F., Albarelli, A., Torsello, A.: Pi-Tag: a fast image-space marker design based on projective invariants. Mach. Vis. Appl. 24, 1295–1310 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-012-0469-6
Bergamasco, F., Albarelli, A., Cosmo, L., Torsello, A.: An accurate and robust artificial marker based on cyclic codes. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 38, 2359–2373 (2016)
Ahn, S., Rauh, W.: Circular coded target for automation of optical 3D- measurement and camera calibration. Int. J. Pattern Recognit. Artif. Intell. 15, 905–919 (2001)
Calvet, L., Gurdjos, P., Griwodz, C., Gasparini, S.: Detection and accurate localization of circular fiducials under highly challenging conditions. In: 2016 IEEE Conf. Comput. Vis. Pattern Recognit. 562–570 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2016.67
Li, W., Liu, G., Zhu, L., Li, X., Zhang, Y., Shan, S.: Efficient detection and recognition algorithm of reference points in photogrammetry. In: Conference on Optics, Photonics and Digital Technologies for Imaging Applications IV (2016)
Guo, C., Cheng, X., Cui, H., Dai, N., Weng, J.: A new technique of recognition for coded targets in optical 3D measurement. In: Optical Metrology and Inspection for Industrial Applications III (2014)
Xia, R.B., Zhao, J.B., Liu, W.J., Wu, J.H., Fu, S.P., Jiang, J., Li, J.: A robust recognition algorithm for encoded targets in close-range photogrammetry. J. Inf. Sci. Eng. 28, 407–418 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1688/JISE.2012.28.2.11
Li, Z., Liu, M.: Research on decoding method of coded targets in close-range photogrammetry. J. Comput. Inf. Syst. 6, 2699–2705 (2010)
Dosil, R., Pardo, X., Fdez-Vidal, X.: A new radial symmetry measure applied to photogrammetry A new radial symmetry measure applied to photogrammetry. Pattern Anal. Appl. 16, 637–646 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10044-012-0281-y
Chen, R., Zhong, K., Li, Z., Liu, M., Zhan, G.: An accurate and reliable circular coded target detection algorithm for vision measurement. In: Han, S, Yoshizawa, T, Zhang, S. (ed.) Optical Metrology and Inspection for Industrial Applications IV (2016). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2245590
Fiala, M.: ARTag, a fiducial marker system using digital techniques. In: IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, vol. 2, Proceedings (2005)
Romero-Ramirez, F., Muñoz-Salinas, R., Medina-Carnicer, R.: Speeded up detection of squared fiducial markers. Image Vis. Comput. 76, 38–47 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imavis.2018.05.004
Garrido-Jurado, S., Munoz-Salinas, R., Madrid-Cuevas, F.J., Marin-Jimenez, M.J.: Automatic generation and detection of highly reliable fiducial markers under occlusion. Pattern Recognit. 47, 2280–2292 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2014.01.005
Garrido-Jurado, S., Muñoz-Salinas, R., Madrid-Cuevas, F., Medina-Carnicer, R.: Generation of fiducial marker dictionaries using mixed integer linear programming. Pattern Recognit. 51, 481–491 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2015.09.023
Mondéjar-Guerra, V., Garrido-Jurado, S., Muñoz-Salinas, R., Marín-Jiménez, M., Medina-Carnicer, R.: Robust identification of fiducial markers in challenging conditions. Expert Syst. Appl. 93, 336–345 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2017.10.032
Canny, J.: A computational approach to edge-detection. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 8, 679–698 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1109/tpami.1986.4767851
Otsu, N.: A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms. IEEE Trans. Syst. ManCybern. 9, 62–66 (1979)
Zatocilova, A., Poliscuk, R., Palousek, D., Brandejs, J.: Photogrammetry based system for the measurement of cylindrical forgings axis straightness. In: Conference on Optical Measurement Systems for Industrial Inspection VIII. Spie-Int Soc Optical Engineering, Bellingham (2013). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2020917
Zatocilova, A., Palousek, D., Brandejs, J.: Development of a photogrammetry system for the measurement of rotationally symmetric forgings. In: Conference on Optical Measurement Systems for Industrial Inspection IX. Spie-Int Soc Optical Engineering, Bellingham (2015). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2184916
Zatocilova, A., Palousek, D., Brandejs, J.: Image-based measurement of the dimensions and of the axis straightness of hot forgings. Measurement 94, 254–264 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2016.07.066
Hurník, J., Zatočilová, A., Paloušek, D.: Camera calibration method of optical system for large field measurement of hot forgings in heavy industry. In: Optical Measurement Systems for Industrial Inspection XI (2019). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2527693
Pebody, L.: The reconstructibility of finite abelian groups. Comb. Probab. Comput. 13, 867–892 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963548303005807
Pebody, L.: Reconstructing odd necklaces. Comb. Probab. Comput. 13, 503–514 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963548306007875
Acknowledgements
This research has received funding from Technology Agency of Czech Republic, project TREND TA1320S03000 and Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Brno University of Technology internal specific project FSI-S-20-6296.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Code availability
Code is available on request from the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hurník, J., Zatočilová, A. & Paloušek, D. Circular coded target system for industrial applications. Machine Vision and Applications 32, 39 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-020-01159-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00138-020-01159-1