Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Racial/ethnic inequality in homelessness and drug overdose deaths in US States

  • Research
  • Published:
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

This study examined whether state-level racial disproportionality in homelessness is associated with racial disproportionality in overdose mortality.

Methods

Counts of individuals experiencing homelessness (2015–2017; by state and racial/ethnic group) were obtained from the US Department of Housing and Urban Development; population estimates and counts of drug overdose deaths (2018–2021; by state and racial/ethnic group) were obtained from the National Center for Health Statistics. Homelessness and overdose mortality disproportionality scores were calculated to indicate the extent to which each racial group was over- or under- represented among those experiencing homelessness, or among overdose deaths, respectively (relative to each racial group’s proportional share in the general population). For each racial group examined, ordinary least squares regression models with robust standard errors (SEs) examined associations between state-level disproportionality in homelessness and disproportionality in overdose mortality, adjusting for percent aged 18–64 and US Census Region, as well as disproportionality in educational attainment and unemployment.

Results

State-level racial disproportionality in homelessness was significantly and positively associated with racial disproportionality in overdose mortality for Black (b = 0.16 [SE = 0.05]; p < .01), American Indian/Alaska Native (b = 0.71 [SE = 0.23]; p < .01), and Hispanic populations (b = 0.17 [SE = 0.05]; p < .01), in models adjusting for region and percent aged 18–64. The significant positive associations in these three populations persisted after adjusting for educational attainment disproportionality, yet the association was no longer significant in the Black population after adjusting for unemployment disproportionality.

Conclusion

States with the highest levels of racial/ethnic minority overrepresentation in homelessness generally also had relatively higher levels of racial/ethnic minority overrepresentation in overdose deaths.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Cano M, Mendoza M, Ignacio M, Rahman A, Daniulaityte R (2023) Overdose deaths involving synthetic opioids: Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in the eastern and western US. Drug Alcohol Depend 251:110955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110955

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Gaur DS, Jacka BP, Green TC, Samuels EA, Hadland SE, Krieger MS, Yedinak JL, Marshall BD (2020) US drug overdose mortality: 2009–2018 increases affect young people who use drugs. Int J Drug Policy 85:102906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102906

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Han B, Einstein EB, Jones CM, Cotto J, Compton WM, Volkow ND (2022) Racial and ethnic disparities in drug overdose deaths in the US during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Netw Open 5:e2232314. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.32314

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Hoopsick RA, Homish GG, Leonard KE (2021) Differences in opioid overdose mortality rates among middle-aged adults by race/ethnicity and sex, 1999–2018. Public Health Rep 136:192–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354920968806

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kariisa M, Seth P, Scholl L, Wilson N, Davis NL (2021) Drug overdose deaths involving cocaine and psychostimulants with abuse potential among racial and ethnic groups - United States, 2004–2019. Drug Alcohol Depend 227:109001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.109001

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cano M, Gelpí-Acosta C (2021) Drug overdose mortality among stateside puerto ricans: evidence of a health disparity. Int J Drug Policy 90:103079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103079

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. D’Orsogna MR, Böttcher L, Chou T (2023) Fentanyl-driven acceleration of racial, gender and geographical disparities in drug overdose deaths in the United States. PLOS Glob Public Health 3:e0000769. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0000769

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Friedman J, Beletsky L, Jordan A (2022) Surging racial disparities in the U.S. overdose crisis. Am J Psychiatry 179:166–169. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2021.21040381

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Kiang MV, Tsai AC, Alexander MJ, Rehkopf DH, Basu S (2021) Racial/ethnic disparities in opioid-related mortality in the USA, 1999–2019: the extreme case of Washington DC. J Urban Health 98:589–595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-021-00573-8

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Phelan JC, Link BG (2015) Is racism a fundamental cause of inequalities in health? Annu Rev Sociol 41:311–330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2024) SUDORS dashboard: Fatal overdose data. https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/fatal/dashboard/index.html. Accessed 8 March 2024

  12. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (2022) HUD 2022 Continuum of Care Homeless Assistance Programs homeless populations and subpopulations. https://files.hudexchange.info/reports/published/CoC_PopSub_NatlTerrDC_2022.pdf. Accessed 8 March 2024

  13. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (2010) The 2010 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2010HomelessAssessmentReport.pdf. Accessed 8 March 2024

  14. Park JN, Weir BW, Allen ST, Chaulk P, Sherman SG Fentanyl-contaminated drugs and non-fatal overdose among people who inject drugs in Baltimore, MD., Harm Reduct J (2018) 2018;15:34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-018-0240-z

  15. Sherman SG, Cheng Y, Kral AH (2007) Prevalence and correlates of opiate overdose among young injection drug users in a large U.S. city. Drug Alcohol Depend 88:182–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.10.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Wagner KD, Liu L, Davidson PJ, Cuevas-Mota J, Armenta RF, Garfein RS (2015) Association between non-fatal opioid overdose and encounters with healthcare and criminal justice systems: identifying opportunities for intervention. Drug Alcohol Depend 153:215–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.026

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Yamamoto A, Needleman J, Gelberg L, Kominski G, Shoptaw S, Tsugawa Y (2019) Association between homelessness and opioid overdose and opioid-related hospital admissions/emergency department visits. Social Sci Med 242:112585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112585

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Fine DR, Dickins KA, Adams LD, De Las Nueces D, Weinstock K, Wright J, Baggett TP (2022) Drug overdose mortality among people experiencing homelessness, 2003 to 2018. JAMA Netw Open 5:e2142676–e2142676

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Scott R, Marchand M, Stover B, Causey K, Harruff R, Hagopian A (2022) Without shelter, people die: disproportionate mortality among King County’s homeless population, 2009–2019. J Soc Distress Homeless 1–11

  20. Baggett TP, Chang Y, Singer DE et al (2015) Tobacco-, alcohol-, and drug-attributable deaths and their contribution to mortality disparities in a cohort of homeless adults in Boston. Am J Public Health 105(6):1189–1197. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302248

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Monnat SM (2018) Factors associated with county-level differences in US drug-related mortality rates. Am J Prev Med 54(5):611–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2018.01.040

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Bradford AC, Bradford WD (2020) The effect of evictions on accidental drug and alcohol mortality. Health Serv Res 55(1):9–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13256

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Cano M, Oh S (2023) State-level homelessness and drug overdose mortality: evidence from US panel data. Drug Alcohol Depend 250:110910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110910

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bradford WD, Lozano-Rojas F (2024) Higher rates of homelessness are associated with increases in mortality from accidental drug and alcohol poisonings: study examines the association between homelessness and accidental drug and alcohol mortality. Health Aff 43(2):242–249. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2023.00951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Fusaro VA, Levy HG, Shaefer HL (2018) Racial and ethnic disparities in the lifetime prevalence of homelessness in the United States. Demography 55:2119–2128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0717-0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Henry M, de Sousa T, Roddey C, Gayen S, Bednar TJ (2021) The 2020 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress: Part 1 point-in-time estimates of homelessness. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2020-AHAR-Part-1.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2023

  27. Olivet J, Wilkey C, Richard M, Dones M, Tripp J, Beit-Arie M, Yampolskaya S, Cannon R (2021) Racial inequity and homelessness: findings from the SPARC Study. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci 693:82–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716221991040

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Willison C, Unwala N, Singer PM, Creedon TB, Mullin B, Cook BL (2024) Persistent disparities: Trends in rates of sheltered homelessness across demographic subgroups in the USA. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 11:326–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01521-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Fowle MZ (2022) Racialized homelessness: a review of historical and contemporary causes of racial disparities in homelessness. Hous Policy Debate 32:940–967. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2022.2026995

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Altekruse SF, Cosgrove CM, Altekruse WC, Jenkins RA, Blanco C (2020) Socioeconomic risk factors for fatal opioid overdoses in the United States: findings from the Mortality disparities in American communities Study (MDAC). PLoS ONE 15:e0227966. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227966

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Nilsson SF, Nordentoft M, Hjorthøj C (2019) Individual-level predictors for becoming homeless and exiting homelessness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Urban Health 96:741–750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-019-00377-x

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Van Draanen J, Tsang C, Mitra S, Karamouzian M, Richardson L (2020) Socioeconomic marginalization and opioid-related overdose: a systematic review. Drug Alcohol Depend 214:108127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Friedman J, Hansen H (2022) Far from a White problem: responding to the overdose crisis as a racial justice issue. Am J Public Health 112:S30–S32. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306698

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (2023) Point-in-Time Count and Housing Inventory Count. https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/hdx/pit-hic/#pit-count-and-hic-data-and-reports. Accessed 1

  35. US Department of Housing and Urban Development (2014) Point-in-Time Count Methodology Guide. https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/PIT-Count-Methodology-Guide.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2023

  36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023) National Center for Health Statistics Mortality Data on CDC WONDER. https://wonder.cdc.gov/mcd.html. Accessed 1 June 2023

  37. Scholl L, Seth P, Kariisa M, Wilson N, Baldwin G (2019) Drug and opioid-involved overdose deaths - United States, 2013–2017. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 67:1419–1427. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm675152e1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Spencer MR, Miniño AM, Warner M (2022) Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 2001–2021. NCHS Data Brief 457:1–8. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc:122556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Rockett IRH, Caine ED, Connery HS et al (2018) Discerning suicide in drug intoxication deaths: paucity and primacy of suicide notes and psychiatric history. PLoS ONE 13:e0190200. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Warner M, Paulozzi LJ, Nolte KB, Davis GG, Nelson LS (2013) State variation in certifying manner of death and drugs involved in drug intoxication deaths. Acad Forensic Pathol 3:231–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Jones CM, Warner M, Hedegaard H, Compton W (2019) Data quality considerations when using county-level opioid overdose death rates to inform policy and practice. Drug Alcohol Depend 204:107549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107549

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Census Bureau US (2015) Sex by age by employment status for the population 16 years and over. American Community Survey, ACS 5-Year Estimates Selected Population Detailed Tables, Table B23001. https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT5YSPT2015.B23001?t=004:Employment%20and%20Labor%20Force%20Status&g=010XX00US$0400000&y=2015&d=ACS%205-Year%20Estimates%20Selected%20Population%20Detailed%20Tables&moe=false. Accessed 6 January 2024

  43. Census Bureau US (2015) Sex by educational attainment for the population 25 years and over. American Community Survey, ACS 5-Year Estimates Selected Population Detailed Tables, Table B15002. https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT5YSPT2015.B15002?t=004:Educational Attainment&g = 010XX00US$0400000&d = ACS 5-Year Estimates Selected Population Detailed Tables&moe = false. Accessed 6 January 2024

  44. Arias E, Heron M, Hakes J (2016) The validity of race and hispanic-origin reporting on death certificates in the United States: an update. Vital Health Stat 2:1–21

    Google Scholar 

  45. Drug Enforcement Administration (2021) 2020 Drug Enforcement Administration National Drug Threat Assessment. https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2021-02/DIR-008-21%202020%20National%20Drug%20Threat%20Assessment_WEB.pdf. Accessed 8 January 2024

  46. United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (2022) Findings-and limitations-of the 2021 Point-in-Time Count. https://www.usich.gov/news-events/news/findings-and-limitations-2021-point-time-count#:~:text=The%20COVID%2D19%20pandemic%20severely,snapshot%20of%20homelessness%20than%20normal. Accessed 12 January 2024

  47. Belsley DA, Kuh E, Welsch RE (1980) Regression diagnostics: identifying influential data sources and sources of collinearity. Wiley

  48. StataCorp (2023) Stata 18 base reference Manual. Stata

  49. Williams DR, Cooper LA (2019) Reducing racial inequities in health: using what we already know to take action. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:606. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16040606

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Jones MM (2016) Does race matter in addressing homelessness? A review of the literature. World Med Health Policy 8:139–156. https://doi.org/10.1002/wmh3.189

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Alexander MJ, Kiang MV, Barbieri M (2018) Trends in Black and White opioid mortality in the United States, 1979–2015. Epidemiology 29:707–715. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000858

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Cano M (2020) Drug overdose deaths among US hispanics: Trends (2000–2017) and recent patterns. Subst Use Misuse 55(13):2138–2147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1793367

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. US Census Bureau (2021) American Community Survey 2021 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables, B06004I Place of Birth (Hispanic or Latino) in the United States. https://data.census.gov/table?t=Hispanic+or+Latino:Native+and+Foreign+Born&g=010XX00US$0400000&tid=ACSDT1Y2021.B06004I. Accessed 1 June 2023

  54. US Census Bureau (2021) American Community Survey 2021 5-Year Estimates Detailed Tables, B03001 Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin. https://data.census.gov/table?t=Hispanic+or+Latino:Native+and+Foreign+Born&g=010XX00US$0400000&tid=ACSDT5Y2021.B03001. Accessed 1 June 2023

  55. Cano M, Sparks CS (2022) Drug overdose mortality by race/ethnicity across US-born and immigrant populations. Drug Alcohol Depend 232:109309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109309

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Cano M, Gelpí-Acosta C (2022) Variation in US drug overdose mortality within and between Hispanic/Latine subgroups: a disaggregation of national data. SSM Ment Health 2:100095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100095

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Cano M, Gelpí-Acosta C (2022) Risk of drug overdose mortality for island-born and US-born puerto ricans, 2013–2019. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 9:1403–1414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-01077-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Frankenfeld CL, Leslie TF (2019) County-level socioeconomic factors and residential racial, hispanic, poverty, and unemployment segregation associated with drug overdose deaths in the United States, 2013–2017. Ann Epidemiol 35:12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.04.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Rudolph KE, Kinnard EN, Aguirre AR, Goin DE, Feelemyer J, Fink D, Cerda M (2020) The relative economy and drug overdose deaths. Epidemiology 31(4):551–558. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000001199

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Schneider M, Brisson D, Burnes D (2016) Do we really know how many are homeless? An analysis of the point-in-time homelessness count. Fam Soc 97:321–329. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2016.97.39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Tsai J, Alarcón J (2022) The annual homeless point-in-Time Count: limitations and two different solutions. Am J Public Health 112(4):633–637. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306640

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Mosites E, Morris SB, Self J, Butler JC (2021) Data sources that enumerate people experiencing homelessness in the United States: opportunities and challenges for epidemiologic research. Am J Epidemiol 190:2432–2436. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwab051

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Kunins HV (2020) Structural racism and the opioid overdose epidemic: the need for antiracist public health practice. J Public Health Manag Pract 26:201–205. https://doi.org/10.1097/PHH.0000000000001168

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Jordan A, Costa M, Nich C et al (2023) Breaking through social determinants of health: results from a feasibility study of Imani breakthrough, a community developed substance use intervention for Black and Latinx people. J Subst Use Addict Treat 209057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.josat.2023.209057

  65. Dunphy CC, Zhang K, Xu L, Guy GP Jr. (2022) Racial–ethnic disparities of buprenorphine and vivitrol receipt in Medicaid. Am J Prev Med 63:717–725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2022.05.006

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Stahler GJ, Mennis J, Baron DA (2021) Racial/ethnic disparities in the use of medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) and their effects on residential drug treatment outcomes in the US. Drug Alcohol Depend 226:108849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108849

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Mantha S, Nolan ML, Harocopos A, Paone D (2021) Racial disparities in criminal legal system involvement among New York City overdose decedents: implications for diversion programs. Drug Alcohol Depend 226:108867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108867

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Dayton L, Tobin K, Falade-Nwulia O et al (2020) Racial disparities in overdose prevention among people who inject drugs. J Urban Health 97:823–830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00439-5

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Khan MR, Hoff L, Elliott L et al (2023) Racial/ethnic disparities in opioid overdose prevention: comparison of the naloxone care cascade in White, Latinx, and black people who use opioids in New York City. Harm Reduct J 20:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-023-00736-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Schneider KE, Park JN, Allen ST, Weir BW, Sherman SG (2020) Knowledge of good samaritan laws and beliefs about arrests among persons who inject drugs a year after policy change in Baltimore, Maryland. Public Health Rep 135:393–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354920915439

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Solari CD, Walton D, Khadduri J (2021) How well do housing vouchers work for black families experiencing homelessness? Evidence from the Family options Study. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci 693:193–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716221996678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Twis M, Petrovich JC (2021) Race and retention in permanent supportive housing: a secondary analysis of housing outcomes. J Hum Behav Soc Environ 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2021.2004965

  73. Cronley C (2022) Invisible intersectionality in measuring vulnerability among individuals experiencing homelessness–critically appraising the VI-SPDAT. J Social Distress Homelessness 31:23–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2020.1852502

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Wilkey C (2019) Coordinated entry systems: Racial equity analysis of assessment data. C4 Innovations. https://c4innovates.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/CES_Racial_Equity-Analysis_Oct112019.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2023

  75. Ong PM, Gonzalez SR, Pech C, Hernandez K, Dominguez-Villegas R (2020) Disparities in the distribution of paycheck protection program funds between majority-white neighborhoods and neighborhoods of color in California. UCLA Latino Policy & Politics Initiative. https://latino.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Final_PPP-Neighborhood-Analysis-Report.pdf

  76. O’Regan KM, Ellen IG, House S (2021) How to address homelessness: reflections from research. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci 693:322–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716221995158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Doran KM, Fockele CE, Maguire M (2022) Overdose and homelessness-why we need to talk about housing. JAMA Netw Open 5:e2142685. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.42685

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Arizona State University, 411 N. Central Ave Suite 863, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA

    Manuel Cano & Kristin M. Ferguson

  2. University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA

    Morgan Zachmeyer & Luis A. Salinas

Authors
  1. Manuel Cano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Morgan Zachmeyer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Luis A. Salinas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristin M. Ferguson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

M.C.: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing- original draft, visualization; M.Z.: writing- review & editing; L.A.S.: writing- review & editing; K.M.F: conceptualization, writing- review & editing, supervision.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Manuel Cano.

Ethics declarations

Ethical standards

The manuscript does not contain clinical studies or patient data.

Financial interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cano, M., Zachmeyer, M., Salinas, L.A. et al. Racial/ethnic inequality in homelessness and drug overdose deaths in US States. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-024-02667-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-024-02667-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation