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Opportunistic yeast pathogens: reservoirs, virulence mechanisms, and therapeutic strategies

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Abstract

Life-threatening invasive fungal infections are becoming increasingly common, at least in part due to the prevalence of medical interventions resulting in immunosuppression. Opportunistic fungal pathogens of humans exploit hosts that are immunocompromised, whether by immunosuppression or genetic predisposition, with infections originating from either commensal or environmental sources. Fungal pathogens are armed with an arsenal of traits that promote pathogenesis, including the ability to survive host physiological conditions and to switch between different morphological states. Despite the profound impact of fungal pathogens on human health worldwide, diagnostic strategies remain crude and treatment options are limited, with resistance to antifungal drugs on the rise. This review will focus on the global burden of fungal infections, the reservoirs of these pathogens, the traits of opportunistic yeast that lead to pathogenesis, host genetic susceptibilities, and the challenges that must be overcome to combat antifungal drug resistance and improve clinical outcome.

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Abbreviations

ABPA:

Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis

APECED:

Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy–candidiasis–ectodermal dystrophy

cAMP:

Cyclic AMP

CDC:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CGD:

Chronic granulomatous disease

CLR:

C-type lectin receptors

CMC:

Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis

CNS:

Central nervous system

COPD:

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CRP:

C-reactive protein

ECM:

Extracellular matrix

GUT:

Gastrointestinally induced transition

GXM:

Glucuronoxylomannan

GXMGal:

Glucuronoxylomannogalactan

HAART:

Highly active antiretroviral therapies

HIES:

Hyper-IgE syndrome

HSP:

Heat shock protein

IFN-γ:

Interferon-γ

IL:

Interleukin

IRIS:

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome

MPO:

Myeloperoxidase

MR:

Mannose receptors

NF-κB:

Nuclear factor-κB

NO:

Nitric oxide

PAMP:

Pathogen-associated molecular pattern

PCP:

Pneumocystis pneumonia

PKA:

Protein kinase A

PKC:

Protein kinase C

PRR:

Pattern recognition receptors

SAP:

Secreted aspartyl proteinase

TGF-β:

Transforming growth factor-β

TLR:

Toll-like receptors

TNF-α:

Tumor necrosis factor-α

Treg cell:

Regulatory T cell

VVC:

Vulvovaginal candidiasis

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Acknowledgments

We thank the J. Andrew Alspaugh and Chad Rappleye labs for images and Cowen lab members for helpful discussions. EJP is supported by a Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Frederick Banting and Charles Best CGS Doctoral Award, XL by a University of Toronto Fellowship, MDL by a Sir Henry Wellcome Postdoctoral Fellowship (Wellcome Trust 096072), and LEC by a Ministry of Research and Innovation Early Researcher Award, Canada Research Chair in Microbial Genomics and Infectious Disease, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Discovery Grant #355965, and by Canadian Institutes of Health Research Grants MOP-86452 and MOP-119520.

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    1. Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Medical Sciences Building, Room 4368, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada

      Elizabeth J. Polvi, Xinliu Li, Teresa R. O’Meara, Michelle D. Leach & Leah E. Cowen

    2. Aberdeen Fungal Group, Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, UK

      Michelle D. Leach

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    1. Elizabeth J. Polvi
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    Correspondence to Leah E. Cowen.

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    E. J. Polvi and X. Li contributed equally to this work.

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    Polvi, E.J., Li, X., O’Meara, T.R. et al. Opportunistic yeast pathogens: reservoirs, virulence mechanisms, and therapeutic strategies. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 72, 2261–2287 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-015-1860-z

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