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Science, Technology, and the Niels Bohr Institute in Occupied Denmark

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Abstract

I argue that research in the basic sciences during the German occupation of Denmark, which began on April 9, 1940, suffered considerably, while research and development in technology enjoyed improved conditions as Danish industry moved toward the requirements of the German wartime economy. Several organizations were created to further Danish–German scientific and cultural collaboration or to manifest Danish cultural identity. The staff of the Danish Technical College and the number of their publications remained largely constant although no papers appeared in British or American journals after 1941. Danish universities massively resisted collaboration and maintained an illusion of “business as usual.” At the Niels Bohr Institute, laboratory equipment continued to be constructed and developed and scientists continued to publish in Danish and other Scandinavian journals, although they were increasingly isolated owing to their inability to obtain foreign scientific journals and to correspond with foreign scientists. The Niels Bohr Institute was occupied from December 6, 1943, to February 3, 1944, a surprisingly short period, owing, I argue, to strategic compromises in following incompatible orders from the German army, security police, and civilian administration. Finally, I offer an interpretation of Niels Bohr’s vehemently negative reaction to Werner Heisenberg in their meeting in Copenhagen in September 1941.

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Notes

  1. Nikolai F.S. Grundtvig (1783–1872) was a Danish pastor, author, and education politician who exerted a great and lasting influence on Danish cultural life.

  2. Best imposed martial law and instituted capital punishment in response to massive strikes and sabotage. The Danish government (but not the Danish administration) refused to function but did not formally resign to prevent a German takeover without violating the Danish constitution.

  3. The Schutzstaffel [Defence Unit] under Heinrich Himmler.

  4. In 1994 the DTC was renamed as the Danish Technical University (Danmarks Tekniske Universitet, DTU).

  5. In the two latter cases this was Werner Best, who was known as a Nazi ideologue and former deputy to Reinhard Heydrich. He represented the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but also had the rank of General (Obergruppenführer) in the SS.

  6. Heisenberg returned the log book to the office of the German Governor Werner Best in May 1944.

  7. Best had stayed in contact with Six whose role in the occupation of the Niels Bohr Institute appears in a interview of Walter Gerlach by David Irving in 1965; see Cassidy, Uncertainty (ref. 13) p. 630, n. 90.

  8. Having imposed this splitting of command lines and loyalties, Himmler wrote to Best about October 12, 1943, that: “You should stand aloof of feeling sad about this. The organizational form is better in this way.” The implicit threat and contempt in the German wording is difficult to render in translation: “Haben Sie die Grösse, darüber nicht traurig zu sein. Die Form der Organisation ist so eine Bessere.” See Herbert, Best (ref. 40), p. 619, n. 152.

  9. Also present were Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Head of the RSHA, and Wilhelm Keitel and Alfred Jodl of the Supreme Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht).

  10. The term “clearing murder” (clearingmord) was introduced into Danish historiography to characterize the retaliation policy of the German occupation powers in response to actions of Danish resistance groups that had resulted in casualties of Germans and their Danish henchmen. It first appeared in Danish underground literature in 1944 and later in Werner Best’s monthly Politische Informationen. I thank John T. Lauridsen for this information.

  11. “Terror can only be defeated by counterterrror. Court-martial verdicts on the contrary create martyrs and national heroes.” [“Terror kan nur mit Gegenterror bekämpft warden. Kriegsgerichturteile dagegen schafften Märtürer und Nationalhelden.”]

  12. Sicherheitsdienst [Security Service], which together with the Gestapo were under the structure of Himmler’s RHSA.

  13. Best, as deputy to Heydrich in the SS, had been involved in the organization of these task forces before the war; see Herbert, Best (ref. 40), p. 234.

  14. Prandtl’s concern about his research program in Göttingen was not incompatible with his opinion, stated in a letter of October 29, 1938, to Geoffrey I. Taylor that, “The struggle, which Germany unfortunately had to fight with the Jews, was necessary for its self-preservation”; quoted in Michael Eckert, The Dawn of Fluid Dynamics: A Discipline between Science and Technology (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2006), p. 192. A copy of the letter is in the Archives of the Max Planck Gesellschaft in Berlin. Prandtl’s opinion was not atypical in German academia and bourgeoisie. It bears an ominous affinity to Himmler’s declaration in October 1943: “We had the moral right, we had the duty to our people, to destroy this people which wanted to destroy us”; quoted in Lawrence Rees, The Nazis: A Warning from History (London: BBC Books, 1997), pp. 172–174.

  15. The administrative formula was “liberated by the Führer and granted the status of a German” [“vom Führer befreit und den Status eines Deutschen zugesprochen”]. Ironically, the same term was used in the postwar denazification procedures to denote the clearance from accusation of collusion with the Nazi regime. See Gesetz No. 104 zur Befreiung von Nationalsozialismus und Militarismus vom 5 März 1946; website <http://www.verfassungen.de/de/bw/wuertt-b-befreiungsgesetz46.htm>.

  16. Carl von Ossietzky (1889–1938), a social democrat, publicist, and pacifist, had been in a concentration camp since February 1933. He was officially regarded as a traitor. When he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1935 Hitler personally decreed that no German citizen would be allowed to receive a Nobel Prize.

  17. Menzel had an important position in the Ministry of Education, was Second Vice President of the KWG and, like many officials, also was General in the SS; he thus had great influence on Heisenberg’s uranium project.

References

  1. Manfred Jacubowski-Thiessen, “Kulturpolitik im besetzten Land,” Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 42 (1994), 129-138, on 138.

  2. John T. Lauridsen, private communication, 2007.

  3. Steen Andersen, Danmark i det tyske Storrum: Dansk økonomisk tilpasning til Tysklands nyordning af Europa 1940-41 [Denmark in the the German Grossraum: Danish Economic Alignment to the German Reorganization of Europe 1940-41] (Copenhagen: Lindhardt og Ringhof, 2003); Steen Andersen, De gjorde Danmark større… De multinationale danske entrepenørfirmaerer i krise og krig 1919-1947 [They made Denmark bigger… The multinational Danish Entrepeneur Firms in Crisis and War 1919-1947] (Copenhagen: Lindhardt og Ringhof, 2005); Philip Giltner, “In the Friendliest Manner”: German-Danish Economic Cooperation During the Nazi Occupation of 1940-1945 (New York: Peter Lang, 1998); Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen, Krigens Købmænd [Merchants of War] (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 2000); Joachim Lund, Hitlers spisekammer: Danmark og den Europæiske nyordning 1940-43 [Hitler’s Food Depot: Denmark and the new European Order 1940-43] (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 2005); Joachim Lund, “Business Elite Networks in Denmark: Adjusting to German Domination,” in Joachim Lund, ed., Working for the New Order: European Business under German Domination, 1939-1945 (Copenhagen: University Press of Southern Denmark and Copenhagen Business School Press, 2006), pp. 115-128.

  4. Niels Alkil, ed., Besættelsestidens Fakta [Documents from the Occupation Years]: Dokumentarisk Haandbog med Henblik paa Lovene af 1945 om Landsskadelig Virksomhed m.v. 2. Bind (København: Udgivet af Sagførerraadet i Kommission hos J.H. Schultz Forlag, 1945-1946), pp. 989-1015.

  5. Erik Ib Schmidt, “Tysk Fremtrængen og dansk Modværge” [“German Advancements and Danish Countermeasures”], in Vilh. Buhl, ed., Danmarks økonomiske forhold 1939-1945 (Odense: A.C. Normanns Forlaget A/S og Forlaget Arnkrone, 1948), pp. 24-82, on p. 39.

  6. Joachim Lund, “Spøgelser. Krigsgæld er for længst betalt tilbage” [“Ghosts: The War Debts were settled long ago”], Politiken [Copenhagen] (April 11, 2007), p. 8.

  7. Ditlev Tamm, Retsopgøret efter besættelsen [The legal Aftermath of the German Occupation] (Copenhagen: Jurist-og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 1984), Kapitel 1-2, pp. 29-111.

  8. Lasse Olufsen, “En undersøgelse af Nordische Gesellschafts rolle i kulturudvekslingen mellem Danmark og Tyskland 1930-45” [“Study of the role of Nordische Gesellschaft in cultural exchange between Denmark and Germany 1930-45”], Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Musicology, University of Copenhagen, 2008.

  9. Alkil, Besættelsestidens Fakta (ref. 4), 1. Bind (1945), pp. 315-354.

  10. Chievitz to Bohr, August 13, 1941, Bohr Private Correspondence, Niels Bohr Archive (hereafter BPC).

  11. Frank-Rutger Hausmann, “Das Deutsche Wissenschalftliche Institut in Kopenhagen,” in “Auch im Krieg schweigen die Musen nicht”: Die Deutschen Wissenschaflichen Institute im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2001), pp. 183-210.

  12. Jacubowski-Thiessen, “Kulturpolitik” (ref. 1), p. 129.

  13. For discussions of the Heisenberg-Bohr meeting in September 1941, see Mark Walker, German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939-1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 222-228; idem, Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German atomic Bomb (New York: Plenum Press, 1995), pp. 124-125, 148-151; David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg (New York: W.H. Freeman, 1992), pp. 436-442; idem, Beyond Uncertainty: Heisenberg, Quantum Physics, and the Bomb (New York: Bellevue Literary Press, 2009), pp. 312-320.

  14. Von Weizsäcker to Bohr, August 15, 1941, Bohr Scientific Correspondence, Niels Bohr Archive (hereafter BSC).

  15. Werner Heisenberg to Eisabeth Heisenberg, undated (ca. September 18, 1941), website <http://werner-heisenberg.unh.edu/kop-letter.htm>.

  16. Alkil, Besættelsestidens Fakta (ref. 4), 1. Bind (1945), p. 659.

  17. Jacubowsky-Thiessen, “Kulturpolitik” (ref. 1), p. 138.

  18. Simonsen to Bohr, May 2, 1941, BSC.

  19. Det danske Selskab under Redaktion af Svend Dahl, Danmarks Kultur ved Aar 1940. 8 Vols. (København: Det danske forlag, 1941-1943).

  20. Ibid., Syvende Bind. Den Videnskabelige Kultur (København: Det danske forlag, 1943).

  21. Povl Engelstoft, “Historie,” in ibid., pp. 155-165, on p. 162.

  22. Niels Bohr, “Dansk Kultur: Nogle indledende Betragtninger” [“Danish Culture: Some Introductory Reflections”], in ibid., Første Bind (København: Det danske forlag, 1941), pp. 9-17; reprinted in Niels Bohr Collected Works. Vol. 10. Complementarity Beyond Physics (1928-1962), edited by David Favrholdt (Amsterdam, Lausanne, New York, Oxford, Shannon, Singapore, Tokyo: Elsevier, 1999), pp. 253-261; English translation, pp. 262-272.

  23. Ibid., p. 12; 256; English translation, p. 265, where the phrase “there I belong” appears in the first line but is rendered differently in Abraham Pais’s congenial translation in his book, Niels Bohr’s Times, In Physics, Philosophy, and Polity (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 39.

  24. H.C. Andersen, Mit Livs Eventyr [1852, The Fairy Tale of My Life]; revideret tekstudgave ved H. Topsøse-Jensen. Bind II (København: Glydendalske Boghandel Nordisk forlag, 1951), p. 118.

  25. J.T. Lundbye, Den polytekniske Læreanstalt 1829-1929 (København: I Kommission hos G.E.C. Gad, 1929), p. 39; see also Henrik Knudsen, Konsensus og konflikt: Organiseringen af den tekniske forskning i Danmark 1900-1960 (Aarhus: Steno Instituttet, Afdeling for videnskabshistorie, Aarhus Universitet, 2005), pp. 21-48, and Dan Ch. Christensen, Naturens tankelæser: En biografi om Hans Christian Ørsted [Nature’s Mind-Reader: A biography of Hans Christian Ørsted] (København: Museum Tusculanums Forlag, Københavns Universitet, 2009), pp. 778-795.

  26. Henrik Tjørnelund, Medicin uden grænser: Statens Serum Institut under besæattelsen [Medicine without limits: The State Serum Institute during Occupation] (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2007), pp. 52-95.

  27. Jens S. Nørregaard, Københavns Universitet i Besættelsesaarene [Copenhagen University in the Years of Occupation] (København: Københavns Universitet, 1947).

  28. Tamm, Retsopgøret (ref. 7), pp. 95-99; John T. Lauridsen, ed., Over stregen – Under besættelsen [Over the Limit – under Occupation] (København: Gyldendal, 2007), passim.

  29. John T. Lauridsen, private communication, 2007.

  30. Stefan Rozental, “Exilfysikere fra Tyskland” [“Exiled Physicists from Germany”], in Steffen Steffensen, På flugt fra Nazismen: Tysksprogede emigranter i Danmark efter 1933 (København: C.A. Reitzels Forlag, 1986), pp. 63-85.

  31. Niels Bohr, [“Preface”], in G. Gamow, Mr. Tompkins i Drømmeland. (København: Gyldendalske Boghandel Nordisk Forlag 1942), pp. 7-8.

  32. Newspaper clippings file, Niels Bohr Archive.

  33. Von Hippel to Bohr, May 1,1940, BPC.

  34. Victor J. Frenkel, Professor Friedrich Houtermans – Arbeit, Leben, Schicksal. Biographie eines Physikers des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts, ed. Dieter Hoffmann (Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Reprint 414, 2011).

  35. For brief accounts, see Nørregaard, Københavns (ref. 27), pp. 53-58; Walker, German National Socialism (ref. 13), pp. 115-116; Walker, Nazi Science (ref. 13), pp. 173-174; Cassisdy, Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 468-470; Cassisdy, Beyond Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 342-343.

  36. Stephan Schwarz, “On the Occupation of Niels Bohr’s Institute – 6 December 1943-3 February 1944” (December 2007), website <http://www.stephanschwarz.se>.

  37. Walker, Nazi Science (ref. 13), p. 173. Von Weizsäcker declined the directorship in a letter to Heisenberg, January 16, 1944, a translation of which is preserved in the U.S. National Archives, Washington, D.C., ALSOS Strassburg Mission, December 15, 1944. I thank Mark Walker for this information.

  38. Elisabeth Heisenberg, Das politische Leben eines Unpolitischen: Erinnerungen an Werner Heisenberg (Munich and Zürich, Piper Verlag & Co. Verlag, 1980), p.102; idem, Inner Exile: Recollections of a life with Werner Heisenberg (Boston, Basel, Stuttgart: Birkhäuser, 1984), p. 82.

  39. Walker, German National Socialism (ref. 13), p. 149. For Heisenberg’s opinion of Diebner, see Operation Epsilon: The Farm Hall Transcripts. Introduction by Sir Charles Frank, OBE, FRS (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, 1993), p. 215; Jeremy Bernstein, Hitler’s Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall. Introduction by David Cassidy (Woodbury, N.Y.: American Institute of Physics Press, 1996), p. 285.

  40. Ulrich Herbert, Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Vernunft, 1903-1989 (Bonn: J.W.H. Dietz Nachfolger, 1996), pp. 377-381, 619-620, n. 152.

  41. Ribbentrop to Gesantschaft in Kopenhagen [Best], October 1, 1943, in Martin Mantzke and Christoph Stamm, ed., Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik 1918–1945 Aus dem Archiv des Auswärtigen Amt. Serie E. 1941-1945. Band VII. 1 October 1943 to 30 April 1944 (Göttingen: Vanderhoek & Ruprecht, 1979), Document No. 3, pp. 7-8, on p. 7.

  42. Herbert, Best (ref. 40), p. 393.

  43. Bjørn Rosengreen, Dr. Werner Best og tysk besættelsespolitik i Danmark 1943-1945 [Dr. Werner Best’s Ocupation Policies in Denmark 1943-1945] (Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag, 1982), p. 77.

  44. Ibid. pp. 81-86.

  45. Herbert, Best (ref. 40), p 379.

  46. Ibid., pp. 380, 620, note 160; Rosengreen, Dr. Werner Best (ref. 43), pp. 107-108.

  47. Henrik Lundtofte, Gestapo! Tysk politi og terror i Danmark 1940-45 [Gestapo! German Political Terror in Denmark 1940-45] (København: Gads Forlag, 2003), p. 161; Rosengreen, Dr. Werner Best (ref. 43), pp. 78-79.

  48. S. Riber Kristensen, “Clearingmord på danske Læger 1944-45” [“Clearing Murders of Danish Physicians 1944-45”], website <http://www.historisktidsskrift/Diskussion.dk/16122005.html> , p. 3 of 10.

  49. Quoted in Operation Epislon (ref. 39), p. 54, and Bernstein, Hitler’s Uranium Club (ref. 39), p. 101.

  50. E. Heisenberg, Das politische Leben (ref. 38), p.102; Inner Exile (ref. 38), p. 82. This is my translation from the German original.

  51. Bohr to Heisenberg, August 30, 1946, BSC; see also S. Rozental, “Fyrrerne og halvtredserne,” in S. Rozental, ed., Niels Bohr: Hans liv og virke fortalt af en kreds af venner og medarbejdere (København: J.H. Schultz Forlag, 1964), pp. 145-183, especially p. 166; idem, “The Forties and the Fifties,” in Niels Bohr: His life and work as seen by his friends and colleagues (Amsterdam: North-Holland and New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1967), pp. 149-190, especially p. 172.

  52. Hahn to Hevesy, June 27, 1946, BSC.

  53. Rozental, Niels Bohr (ref. 51), p. 167; 172.

  54. Michael Frayn, Copenhagen (London: Methuen Drama, 1998); see also Walker, German National Socialism (ref. 13), pp. 222-228; idem, Nazi Science (ref. 13), pp. 124-125, 148-151; Cassidy, Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 436-442; idem, Beyond Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 312-320; Documents relating to the Bohr-Heisenberg meeting in September 1941, Niels Bohr Archive, released February 6, 2002, website <http://www.nba.nbi.dk>; Matthias Dörries, ed., Michael Frayn’s Copenhagen in Debate: Historical Essays and Documents on the 1941 Meeting Between Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg (Berkeley: University of California Office for History of Science and Technology, 2005); Armand A. Lucas, Bombe atomique et croix gammée (Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique [Mémoire de la Classe des Sciences], 2005).

  55. Bohr to Heisenberg, Documents, Niels Bohr Archive (ref. 54), Document 1 [Draft].

  56. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago: Quadrangle Books and London: W.H. Allen, 1961), pp. 268-277; idem, Die Vernichtung der eurpäischen Juden. Aus dem Amerikanischen von Christian Seeger, Harry Maor, Walle Bengs und Wilfried Szepan (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1999), pp. 436-449.

  57. Alan D. Beyerchen, Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1977), pp. 42-43; Helmuth Albrecht, “‘Max Planck: Mein Besuch bei Adolf Hitler’—Anmerkungen zum Wert einer historischen Quelle,” in Helmuth Albrecht, ed., Naturwissenschaft und Technik in der Geschichte (Stuttgart: Verlag für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik, 1993), pp. 41-63; Helmuth Trischler, “Self-mobilization or Resistance? Aeronautical research and National Socialism,” in Monika Renneberg and Mark Walker, ed., Science, Technology and National Socialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 72-85; Walker, German National Socialism (ref. 13), pp. 9-10.

  58. Heisenberg to Born, June 2, 1933, quoted in Karl von Meyenn, ed., Wolfgang Pauli Wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel mit Bohr, Einstein, Heisenberg u.a. Band II. 1930-1939 (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 1985), p. 168.

  59. Max Born, My Life: Recollections of a Nobel Laureate (London: Taylor & Francis and New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978), p. 269.

  60. Theodore von Kármán with Lee Edson, The Wind and Beyond: Pioneer in Aviation and Pathfinder in Space (Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown, 1967), p. 146. Bäumker is included in the acknowledgements, so he presumably had confirmed this incident.

  61. Hilberg, Destruction (ref. 56), p. 269; Vernichtung (ref. 56), p. 438.

  62. Michael Frayn, Afterlife (London: Methuen Drama, 2008).

  63. Reinhard Rürup unter Mitwirkung von Michael Schöring, Schicksale und Karriere: Gedenkbuch für die von den Nationalsozialisten aus der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft vertriebenen Forscherinnen und Forscher [Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus, Vol. 14] (Göttingen, Wallstein Verlag, 2008), pp. 82-84; Rüdiger Hachtmann, Wissenschaftsmanagement im “Dritten Reich”: Geschichte der Generalverwaltung der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft [Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus, Vol. 15/1] (Göttingen, Wallstein Verlag, 2007), pp. 431-445.

  64. Samuel A. Goudsmit, ALSOS (New York: Henry Schumann, 1947; reprinted with a new introduction by R.V. Jones (Los Angeles and San Francisco: Tomash Publishers, 1983), pp. 50-53.

  65. Bohr to Heisenberg, Documents, Niels Bohr Archive (ref. 54).

  66. Beyerchen, Scientists (ref. 57), pp. 158-163; Cassidy, Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 379-396; Cassidy, Beyond Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 272-281; Walker, Nazi Science (ref. 13), pp.130-139; Klaus Hentschel, ed., Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhäuser Verlag, 1996), Doc. 55, “‘White Jews’ in Science (July 15, 1937),” pp. 152-157; for facsimilie, see website <http://www.archiv.uni-leipzig.de/heisenberg/Physik_Deutsche_FamHeisenberg_und_die_Deutsche_Ph/galerie_korps.html>.

  67. Hentschel, Physics and National Socialism (ref. 66), Doc. 63, “Heinrich Himmler: Letter to Reinhard Heydrich (July 21, 1938), pp. 175-176. “I ask you furthermore to settle the whole matter through [Franz A.] Six.…” (p. 175) See also Walker, German National Socialism (ref. 13), p. 64. This was the context in which Six was instructed to recruit Heisenberg for Himmler’s pseudo-scientific program Ahnenerbe (“The bequest of our ancestors”--for research on the anthropological and cultural history of the Aryan race), in particular the “World ice theory” (Welteislehre).

  68. Cassidy, Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 397-414; Cassidy, Beyond Uncertainty (ref. 13), pp. 280-281; Walker, Nazi Science (ref. 13), p.153-181; N.P. Landsman, “Getting even with Heisenberg” [Essay Review of P.L. Rose, Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project; A Study in German Culture], Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 33 (2002), 297-325, especially 300-301.

  69. Hentschel, Physics and National Socialism (ref. 66), Doc. 73, “SS Head of the Central Office of Public Safety: Letter to Rudolf Mentzel enclosing Report on Heisenberg (May 26, 1939),” pp. 195-196.

  70. Operation Epsilon (ref. 39), p. 91; Bernstein, Hitler’s Uranium Club (ref. 39), p. 153.

  71. Hentschel, Physics and National Socialism (ref. 66), Doc. 99, “Hermann Göring, et al.: Record of a Conference Regarding the Reich Research Council, July 6, 1942,” pp. 304-308, on pp. 307-308.

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Acknowledgments

I am deeply indebted to Ruth Lewin Sime and Mark Walker for constructive criticism and useful material. I thank Finn Aaserud (Niels Bohr Archive), Joachim Lund (Copenhagen Business School), and John T. Lauridsen (The Royal Library, Copenhagen) for important material and suggestions, and Felicity Pors (Niels Bohr Archive) for much help in finding my way in the archive’s collections. I thank the Niels Bohr Archive for permission to reproduce figures 3, 4, and 7. I thank Michael Frayn for the reference to a Heisenberg letter from Copenhagen in September 1941, and for the reference to the case of Max Reinhardt. I thank Michael Eckert and Klaus Hentschel for the original German text of two quotations, and Hubert Laitko for comments on my manuscript. Finally, I thank Roger H. Stuewer for his careful and thoughtful editorial work and suggestions, from which my paper has benefitted greatly.

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Stephan Schwarz received his Ph.D. degree in physics at the University of Stockholm and has been employed in the Swedish Agency for Defence Research and the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, the European Nuclear Energy Agency in Paris, and CERN in Geneva.

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Schwarz, S. Science, Technology, and the Niels Bohr Institute in Occupied Denmark. Phys. Perspect. 13, 401–432 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00016-011-0059-4

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