Abstract
Extrinsic consequences have been criticized on the grounds that they decrease intrinsic motivation or internally initiated behavior. Two popular rationales for this criticism, Lepper’s overjustification hypothesis (1981) and Deci’s motivational theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), are reviewed and the criticism is then redefined behaviorally. “Intrinsically controlled” behavior is defined as behavior maintained by response-produced reinforcers, and the question concerning extrinsic consequences is thus restated as follows: When behavior is maintained by response-produced stimuli, does extrinsic reinforcement decrease the reinforcing value of those stimuli? The empirical support for this detrimental effect is summarized briefly, and several possible explanations for the phenomenon are offered. Research results that reflect on the effect’s generality and social significance are discussed next, with the conclusion that the effect is transient and not likely to occur at all if extrinsic rewards are reinforcing, noncompetitive, based on reasonable performance standards, and delivered repetitively.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amabile, T. M. (1979). Effects of external evaluations on artistic creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 221–233.
Amabile, T. M. (1982). Social psychology of creativity: A consensual assessment technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 997–1013.
Amabile, T. M. (1985). Motivation and creativity: Effects of motivational orientation on creative writers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 393–399.
Amabile, T. M., De Jong, W., & Lepper, M. R. (1976). Effects of externally imposed deadlines on subsequent intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 92–98.
Anderson, R., Manoogian, S. T., & Reznick, J. S. (1976). The undermining and enhancing of intrinsic motivation in preschool children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 915–922.
Antonitis, J. J., & Barnes, G. W. (1961). Group operant behavior: An extension of individual methodology to a real life situation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 98, 95–111.
Arkes, H. R. (1979). Competence and the overjustification effect. Motivation and Emotion, 3, 143–150.
Bandura, A. (1987). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Berlyne, D. E. (1955). The arousal and satiation of perceptual curiosity in the rat. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 48, 238–246.
Boggiano, A. K., & Ruble, D. N. (1979). Competence and the overjustification effect: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1462–1468.
Calder, B. J., & Staw, B. M. (1975). Self-perception of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 599–605.
Condry, J. (1977). Enemies of exploration: Self-initiated versus other-initiated learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 459–477.
Danner, F. W., & Lonky, E. (1981). A cognitive-developmental approach to the effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 52, 1043–1052.
Davidson, P., & Bucher, B. (1978). Intrinsic interest and extrinsic reward: The effects of a continuing token program on continuing noncon-strained preference. Behavior Therapy, 9, 222–234.
Deal, R. M., & Madsen, C. H., Jr. (1980). Token systems and intrinsic motivation: An experimental analysis. Unpublished manuscript, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.
deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115.
Deci, E. L. (1972a). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic reinforcement, and inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 113–120.
Deci, E. L. (1972b). The effects of contingent and noncontingent rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 8, 217–229.
Deci, E. L. (1975a). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L. (1975b). Notes on the theory and metatheory of intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 130–145.
Deci, E. L. (1978). Applications of research on the effects of rewards. In M. R. Lepper & D. Greene (Eds.), The hidden costs of reward: New perspectives on the psychology of motivation (pp. 193–203). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Deci, E. L., Betley, G., Kahle, J., Abrams, L., & Porac, J. (1981). When trying to win: Competition and intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 79–83.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Dickinson, A. M. (1985). The effects of reward and reinforcment on intrinsic interest. Dissertation Abstracts International 46, 3202B. (University Microfilms No. DA8524457.)
Dunham, P. J. (1977). The nature of reinforcing stimuli. In W. K. Honig & J. E. R. Staddon (Eds.), Handbook of operant behavior (pp. 98–124). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Enzle, M. E., & Ross, J. M. (1978). Increasing and decreasing intrinsic interest with contingent rewards: A test of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 588–597.
Farr, J. L. (1976). Task characteristics, reward contingency, and intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 294–307.
Farr, J. L., Vance, R. J., & McIntyre, R. M. (1977). Further examinations of the relationship between reward contingency and intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 20, 31–53.
Feingold, B. D., & Mahoney, M. J. (1975). Reinforcement effects on intrinsic interest: Undermining the overjustification hypothesis. Behavior Therapy, 6, 367–377.
Franken, R. E. (1988). Human motivation. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, 45, 1141–1145.
Greene, D., Sternberg, B., & Lepper, M. R. (1976). Overjustification in a token economy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 1219–1234.
Harackiewicz, J. M. (1979). The effects of reward contingency and performance feedback on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1352–1363.
Harlow, H. F. (1950). Learning and satiation of response in intrinsically motivated complex puzzle performance by monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1950, 289–294.
Harlow, H. F., Harlow, M. K., & Meyer, D. R. (1950). Learning motivated by a manipulative drive. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 228–234.
Hom, H. L., Jr., & Maxwell, F. R. (1980, April). Individual patterns in intrinsic motivation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Oklahoma City, OK.
Horcones. (1983). Natural reinforcement in a Waiden Two community. Revista Mexicana de Analisis de la Conducta, 9, 141–143.
Horcones. (1987). The concept of consequences in the analysis of behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 291–294.
Karniol, R., & Ross, M. (1977). The effects of performance-relevant and performance-irrelevant rewards on children’s intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 48, 482–487.
Kish, G. B. (1966). Studies of sensory reinforcement. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: Areas of research and application (pp. 109–159). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Kish, G. B., & Baron, A. (1962). Satiation of sensory reinforcement. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 55, 1007–1010.
Kohn, A. (1988, January). Incentives can be bad for business. Inc., pp. 93–94.
Kruglanski, A. W., Alan, S., & Lewis, T. (1972). Retrospective misattribution and task enjoyment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 493–501.
Kruglanski, A. W., Riter, A., Amitai, A., Margolin, B., Shabtai, L., & Zaksh, D. (1975). Can money enhance intrinsic motivation? A test of the content-consequence hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 744–750.
Lepper, M. R. (1981). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in children: Detrimental effects of superfluous social controls. In W. E. Collins (Ed.), Aspects of the development of competence (pp. 155–214). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1975). Turning play into work: Effects of adult surveillance and extrinsic rewards on children’s intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 479–486.
Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1976). On understanding “overjustification”: A reply to Reiss and Sushinsky. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 25–35.
Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (Eds.). (1978). The hidden costs of reward: New perspectives on the psychology of human motivation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–137.
Levine, F. M., & Fasnacht, G. (1974). Token rewards may lead to token learning. American Psychologist, 29, 816–820.
Loveland, K. K., & Olley, J. G. (1979). The effect of external reward on interest and quality of task performance in children of high and low intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 50, 1207–1210.
Luvten, H., & Lens, W. (1981). The effect of earlier experience and reward contingencies on intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 25–36.
Martin, J. A. (1977). Effects of positive and negative adult-child interactions on children’s task performance and task preferences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23, 493–502.
Mawhinney, T. C. (1979). Intrinsic X extrinsic work motivation: Perspectives from behaviorism. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 24, 411–440.
Mawhinney, T. C., Dickinson, A. M., & Taylor, L. A., III. (in press). The use of concurrent schedules to evaluate the effects of extrinsic rewards on “intrinsic motivation.” Journal of Organizational Behavior Management.
McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. W., & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
McGraw, K. O., & Fiala, J. (1982). Undermining the Zeigarnik effect: Another hidden cost of reward. Journal of Personality, 50, 58–66.
McGraw, K., & McCullers, J. (1979). Evidence of a detrimental effect of extrinsic incentives on breaking a mental set. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 285–294.
Montgomery, K. C. (1952). Exploratory behavior and its relation to spontaneous alternation in a series of maze exposures. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 45, 50–57.
Morgan, M. (1983). Decrements in intrinsic interest among rewarded and observer subjects. Child Development, 54, 636–644.
Morgan, M. (1984). Reward-induced decrements and increments in intrinsic motivation. Review of Educational Research, 54, 5–30.
Pinder, C. C. (1976). Additivity versus nonadditivity of intrinsic and extrinsic incentives: Implications for work motivation, performance, and attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 693–700.
Pittman, T. S., Davey, M. E., Alafat, K. A., Wetherill, K. V., & Kramer, N. A. (1980). Informational versus controlling verbal rewards. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 228–33.
Pittman, T. S., & Heller, J. F. (1987). Social motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 461–89.
Porac, J. F., & Meindl, J. (1982). Undermining overjustification: Inducing intrinsic and extrinsic task representations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 29, 208–226.
Pritchard, R. D., Campbell, K. M., & Campbell, D. J. (1977). Effects of extrinsic financial rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 9–15.
Reiss, S., & Sushinsky, L. W. (1975). Overjustification, competing responses, and the acquisition of intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 1116–1125.
Rosenfield, D., Folger, R., & Adelman, H. F. (1980). When rewards reflect competence: A qualification of the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 368–376.
Ross, M. (1975). Salience of reward and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 245–254.
Ross, M., Karniol, R., & Rothstein, M. (1976). Reward contingency and intrinsic motivation in children: A test of the delay of gratification hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 442–447.
Ryan, R. M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450–461.
Ryan, R. M., Mims, B., & Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 736–750.
Salancik, G. R. (1975). Interaction effects of performance and money on self-perception of intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 339–351.
Scott, W. E., Jr. (1975). The effects of extrinsic rewards on “intrinsic motivation.” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 311–335.
Scott, W. E., Jr. (1980). The hidden costs of reward remain largely hidden. Contemporary Psychology, 25, 106–107.
Shapira, Z. (1976). Expectancy determinants of intrinsically motivated behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 1235–1244.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: A theoretical analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Vintage.
Smith, M. C. (1975). Children’s use of the multiple sufficient cause schema in social perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 737–747.
Swann, W. B., Jr., & Pittman, T. S. (1977). Initiating play activity of children: The moderating influence of verbal cues on intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 48, 1128–1132.
Vasta, R., Andrews, D. E., McLaughlin, A. M., Stirpe, L. A., & Comfort, C. (1978). Reinforcement effects on intrinsic interest: A classroom analog. Journal of School Psychology, 16, 161–68.
Vasta, R., & Stirpe, L. A. (1979). Reinforcement effects on three measures of children’s interest in math. Behavior Modification, 3, 223–244.
Vaughan, M. E., & Michael, J. (1982). Automatic reinforcement: An important but ignored concept. Behaviorism, 10, 217–227.
Weiner, M. J. (1980). The effect of incentive and control over outcomes upon intrinsic motivation and performance. The Journal of Social Psychology, 112, 247–254.
Weiner, M. J., & Mander, A. M. (1978). The effects of reward and perception of competency upon intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 2, 67–73.
Welker, W. I. (1956). Some determinants of play and exploration in chimpanzees. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 49, 84–89.
White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.
Williams, B. W. (1980). Reinforcement, behavior constraint, and the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 599–14.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1985). The development of “intrinsic” motivation: A social learning analysis. Annals of Child Development, 2, 117–160.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dickinson, A.M. The Detrimental Effects of Extrinsic Reinforcement on “Intrinsic Motivation”. BEHAV ANALYST 12, 1–15 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392473
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392473