Skip to main content
Log in

Events and Constructs

  • Article
  • Published:
The Psychological Record Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Psychology has largely ignored the distinction between constructs and events and what comprises a scientific construct, yet this distinction is basic to some of the major divisions of thought within the discipline. Several kinds of constructs are identified and compared with events, and improper use of constructs is noted of which the mind construct is a prime example. After indicating some problems with a failure to maintain the distinction between constructs and events and to establish constructs based on events, a list of criteria for scientific employment of constructs is proposed as a means of clarifying and advancing work in psychology. An example of a construct-based and of an event-based approach provides a contrast in scientific orientation with the implication that only by using the latter can psychology remedy its fragmentation and make advancements as a science.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • ADAMS, G. L., & ENGELMANN, S. (1996). Research on direct instruction: 25 years beyond Distar. Seattle, WA: Educational Achievement Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • BARBER, T. X. (1981). Hypnosis: A scientific approach. South Orange, NJ: Power.

    Google Scholar 

  • BARKOW, J. H., COSMIDES, L., & TOOBY, J. (Eds.) (1992). Introduction. In J. H Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

  • BARRET, L., DUNBAR, R., & LYCET, J. (2002). Human evolutionary psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • BAXTER, C. (1994). An interbehavioral approach to teaching and problem solving in education. Effective School Practices, 12(4)/13(1), 34–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • BAXTER, C. (2006). A new and revolutionary psychology of effective teaching: The applied science of interactive communication. Unpublished manuscript

    Google Scholar 

  • BEM, S., & LOOREN dE JONG, H. (1997). Theoretical issues in psychology: An introduction. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • BENNET, M. R., & HACKER, P. M. S. (2001). Perception and memory in neuroscience: A conceptual analysis. Progress in Neurobiology, 65, 499–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BORNSTEIN, R. F. (1988). Radical behaviorism, internal states, and the science of psychology: A reply to Skinner. American Psychologist, 43, 819–821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BROWN, S. R (1980). Political subjectivity: Applications of Q-methodology in political science. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • BROWN, S. R. (1994–1995). Q methodology as the foundation for a science of subjectivity. Operant Subjectivity, 18, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • BROWN, W. H., BRYSON-BROCKMAN, W., & FOX, J. (1986). The usefulness of J. R. Kantor’s setting event concept for research on children’s social behavior. Child and Family Therapy, 8, 15–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CHAPIN, J. J. (1985). Dictionary of psychology (2nd ed. rev.). New York: Dell

    Google Scholar 

  • CLARK, J. M., & PAIVIO, A. (1989). Observational and theoretical terms in psychology. American Psychologist, 44, 500–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CLAYTON, M. C., HAYES, L. J., & SWAIN, M. W. (2005). The nature and value of scientific system building: The case of interbehaviorism. The Psychological Record, 55, 335–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DELPRATO, D. (1979). The interbehavioral alternative to brain dogma. The Psychological Record, 29, 409–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EBEL, R. L. (1974). And still the dryads linger. American Psychologist, 29, 485–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ENGLISH, H. B., & ENGLISH, A. C. (1958). A comprehensive dictionary of psychological and psychoanalytic terms: A guide to usage. New York: Longmans, Green.

    Google Scholar 

  • EVERSON, S. (1997). Aristotle on perception. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • FREMAN, W. J. (2001). Three centuries of category errors in studies of the neural basis of consciousness and intentionality. In W. S. Sulis & I. Trofimova (Eds.), Nonlinear dynamics in the life and social sciences (pp. 275–285). Amsterdam: IOS Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • GANDER, E. M. (2003). On our minds: How evolutionary psychology is reshaping the nature-versus-nurture debate. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • GROSSBERG, J. M. (1972). Brain wave feedback experiments and the concept of mental mechanism. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 3, 245–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HARRÉ, R., & LAMB, R. (Eds.). (1983). The encyclopedic dictionary of psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1922). The nervous system, psychological fact or fiction? Journal of Philosophy, 19, 38–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1947). Problems of physiological psychology. Bloomington, IN: Principia.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1953). The logic of modern science. Bloomington, IN: Principia.

    Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1957). Events and constructs in the science of psychology; Philosophy: Banished and recalled. The Psychological Record, 7, 55–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1959). Interbehavioral psychology: A sample of scientific system construction. Bloomington, IN: Principia.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1963–1969). The scientific evolution of psychology (Vols. 1-2). Chicago: Principia.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1978). Cognition as events and as psychic constructs. The Psychological Record, 38, 329–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1981). Interbehavioral psychology and the logic of science. The Psychological Record, 31, 3–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1982). Cultural psychology. Chicago, IL: Principia.

    Google Scholar 

  • KANTOR, J. R. (1983). Explanation: Psychological nature, role in scientific investigation. Revista Mexicana de Análysis de la Conducta, 9, 29–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • KOSSLYN, S. M. (1995). Image and brain: The resolution of the imagery debate. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LICHTENSTEIN, P. E. (1984). Interbehaviorism in psychology and in the philosophy of science. The Psychological Record, 34, 455–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LICKLITER, R. (2006). Developmental systems and psychological science. In B. D. Midgley & E. K. Morris (Eds.), Modern perspectives on J. R. Kantor and interbehaviorism (pp. 173–194). Reno, NV: Context Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • MCHUGH, P. R. (1999, Dec.). How psychiatry lost its way. Commentary, 108(5), 32–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • MOORE, J. (1998). On behaviorism, theories, and hypothetical constructs. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 19, 215–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • NATSOULAS, T. (1978). Consciousness. American Psychologist, 33, 906–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NATSOULAS, T. (1983). Addendum to “consciousness.” American Psychologist, 38, 121–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OAKLEY, R. (2004). How mind hurts and heals the body. American Psychologist, 59, 29–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Observer. (1983). Meanings as events and as constructions in psychology and linguistics. The Psychological Record, 33, 433–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • PINKER, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • POSNER, M. I., & RAICHLE, M. E. (1994). Images of mind. New York: Scientific American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • RANDALL, J. H. (1960). Aristotle. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • REBER, A. S., & REBER, E. S. (2001). The Penguin dictionary of psychology (3rd ed.). London: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • REESE, H. W. (2001). Some recent recurrent issues in the history of behavioral sciences. The Behavior Analyst, 24, 227–239.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • RICHERSON, P. J., & BOYD, R. (1998). The evolution of ultra-sociality. In I. Eibl-Eibesfeldt & F. Salter (Eds.), Indoctrinability, ideology and warfare: Evolutionary perspectives (pp. 71–95). New York: Berghahn.

    Google Scholar 

  • RYLE, G. (1949). The concept of mind. New York: Barnes and Noble.

    Google Scholar 

  • SCHLINGER, H. D. (2003). The myth of intelligence. The Psychological Record, 53, 15–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • SHAPIRO, Y. (1997). The consciousness hype: What do we want explained? Theory and Psychology, 7, 837–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SHUTE, C. (1944). The psychology of Aristotle. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • SIMON, H. (1992). What is an “explanation” of behavior? Psychological Science , 3, 150–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SKINNER, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • SKINNER, B. F. (1963). Behaviorism at fifty. Science, 149, 951–958.

    Google Scholar 

  • SKINNER, B. F. (1990). Can psychology be a science of mind? American Psychologist, 45, 1206–1210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SMITH, N. W. (1987). Cognitive interbehaviour. In A. Costall & A. Still (Eds.), Cognitive psychology in question (pp. 194–212). Brighton, England: Harvester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • SMITH, N. W. (1993a). Alternatives to recurring problems in psychology. In N. W. Smith (Ed.), Greek and interbehavioral psychology: Selected and revised papers (Rev. ed., pp. 169–197). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • SMITH, N. W. (1993b). Indo-European psychological concepts and the shift to psychophysical dualism. In N. W. Smith (Ed.), Greek and interbehavioral psychology: Selected and revised papers (Rev. ed., pp. 61–71). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • SMITH, N. W. (1997). Consciousness: Events or constructs? In L. J. Hayes & P. M. Ghezzi (Eds.), Investigations in behavioral epistemology (pp. 147–161). Reno, NV: Context Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • SMITH, N. W. (2001). Current systems in psychology: History, theory, research, and applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • SMITH, N. W. (2006). Interbehavioral research. In E. K. Morris & B. D. Midgley (Eds.), Perspectives on J. R. Kantor and interbehaviorism (pp. 111–171). Reno, NV: Context Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • STEBINS, L. B., St. PIERE, R. G., PROPER, E. C., ANDERSON, R. B., & CERVA, T. R. (1977). An evaluation of follow through. Education as Experimentation series. Vol. IV-A-D. Cambridge, MA: ABT Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • STEPHENSON, W. (1953). The study of behavior: Q-techniques and its methodology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • SUTHERLAND, S. (1996). The international dictionary of psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Crossroad.

    Google Scholar 

  • UTAL, W. R. (2001). The new phrenology: The limits of localizing cognitive processes in the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • VALENSTEIN, E. S. (1998). Blaming the brain: The truth about drugs and mental health. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • WATKINS, A. J. (1990). Mediationism and the obfuscation of memory. American Psychologist, 45, 328–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WATKINS, C. L. (1988). Project follow-through: A story of the identification and neglect of effective instruction. Youth Policy, 10(7), 7–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHITE, L. (1939). Mind is minding. The Scientific Monthly, 48, 169–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • WOLMAN, B. B. (1989). Dictionary of behavioral science. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • WOODWORTH, R. S. (1929). Psychology. (Rev. ed.). New York: Henry Holt.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Noel W. Smith.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Smith, N.W. Events and Constructs. Psychol Rec 57, 169–186 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395570

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03395570

Navigation