Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Aversive Properties of Withdrawing Positive Reinforcement: A Review of the Recent Literature

  • Published:
The Psychological Record Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Using as a reference point those paradigms (punishment, CER, avoidance, and escape) which have commonly employed electric shock as an aversive stimulus, this paper reviews those studies which have attempted to assess the aversive properties of withdrawing positive reinforcement. While the evidence cited suggests that withdrawing positive reinforcement can function as an aversive event, it is pointed out that there is a need for resolving the contradictions that still exist. Several suggestions are offered which might lead to clarification of the problems inherent in this area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • ADELMAN, H. M., & MAATSCH, J. L. 1956. Learning and extinction based on frustration, food reward, and exploratory tendency. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52, 311–315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • AMSEL, A. 1958. The role of frustrative nonreward in noncontinuous reward situations. Psychological Bulletin, 55, 102–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • AMSEL, A., & ROUSSEL, J. 1952. Motivational properties of frustration: I. Effects on a running response of the addition of frustration to the motivational complex. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43, 363–368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anger, D. 1963. The role of temporal discriminations in the reinforcement of Sidman avoidance behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 477–506.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • APPEL, J. B. 1963. Aversive aspects of a schedule of positive reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 423–428.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • AZRIN, N. H. 1956. Effects of two intermittent schedules of immediate and nonim-mediate punishment. Journal of Psychology, 42, 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • AZRIN, N. H. 1960. Effect of punishment intensity during variable-interval reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 3, 123–142.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • AZRIN, N. H. 1961. Time-out from positive reinforcement. Science, 133, 382–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • AZRIN, N. H., & HAKE D. F. 1969. Positive conditioned suppression: Conditioned suppression using positive reinforcers as the unconditioned stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 167–173.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • AZRIN, N. H., & HOLZ, W. C. 1966. Punishment. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior. Areas of research and application. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Pp. 380–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • AZRIN, N. H., HOLZ, W. C., & HAKE, D. F. 1963. Fixed-ratio punishment. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 141–148.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • BAER, D. M. 1960. Escape and avoidance responses of pre-school children to two schedules of reinforcement withdrawal. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 3, 155–160.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • BAER, D. M. 1962. Laboratory control of thumb-sucking by withdrawal and representation of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 525–528.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • BARON, A., & KAUFMAN, A. 1966. Human free-operant avoidance of “time out” from monetary reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9, 557–565.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • BARON, A., KAUFMAN, A., & RAKAUSKAS, I. 1967. Ineffectiveness of “time out” punishment in suppressing human operant behavior. Psychonomic Science, 8, 329–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BERGER, D. F. 1969. The CER with response-independent time out as the US. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association meetings, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • BERTSCH, G. J., & LEITENBERG, H. 1970. A “frustration effect” following electric shock. Learning and Motivation, 1, 150–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BLACKMAN, D. 1968. Conditioned suppression or facilitation as a function of the behavioral baseline. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11, 53–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • BOREN, J. J., & DEVINE, D. D. 1968. The repeated acquisition of behavioral chains. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11, 651–660.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • BROWN, J. S., & JACOBS, A. 1949. The role of fear in the motivation and acquisition of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39, 747–759.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • BROWN, R. T., & WAGNER, A. R. 1964. Resistance to punishment and extinction following training with shock or nonreinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 503–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CARMAN, J. B. 1969. Time-out from a short mean-interval variable-interval reinforcement schedule. Psychonomic Science, 15, 259–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • COUGHLIN, R. C. 1970. Escape from a stimulus correlated with nonreinforcement in a multiple schedule. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Vermont.

    Google Scholar 

  • DALY, H. B. 1969a. Learning of a hurdle-jump response to escape cues paired with reduced reward or frustrative nonreward. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 146–157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DALY, H, B. 1969b. Is instrumental responding necessary for nonreward following reward to be frustrating? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80, 186–187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DALY, H. B. 1969c. The aversive properties of partial and varied reinforcement during runway acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 54–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DALY, H. B. 1970. Combined effects of fear and frustration on acquisition of a hurdle-jump response. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 83, 89–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DINSMOOR, J. A. 1954. Punishment: I. The avoidance hypothesis. Psychological Review, 61, 34–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • ESTES, W. K., & SKINNER, B. F. 1941. Some quantitative properties of anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 390–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FERSTER, C. B. 1958. Control of behavior in chimpanzees and pigeons by timeout from positive reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 72 (Whole No. 461).

  • FERSTER, C. B. 1960. Suppression of performance under differential reinforcement of low rate by a pre-time-out stimulus. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 3, 143–153.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • FERSTER, C. B., & APPEL, J. B. 1961. Punishment of SΔ responding in matching to sample by time out from positive reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 4, 45–56.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • FERSTER, C. B., APPEL, J. B., & HISS, R. A. 1962. The effects of drugs on a fixed-ratio performance suppressed by a pre-time-out stimulus. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 5, 73–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HARRISON, J. M., & ABELSON, R. M. 1959. The maintenance of behavior and the termination and onset of intense noise. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 2, 23–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HEARST, E., BESLEY, S., & FARTHING, G. W. 1970. Inhibition and the stimulus control of operant behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 14, 373–409.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HENTON, W. W., & BRADY, J. V. 1970. Operant acceleration during a pre-reward stimulus. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 13, 205–209.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HERRNSTEIN, R. J. 1955. Behavior consequences of the removal of a discriminative stimulus associated with variable-interval reinforcement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.

    Google Scholar 

  • HOFFMAN, H. S. 1966. The analysis of discriminated avoidance. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior-. Areas of research and application. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Pp. 499–530.

    Google Scholar 

  • HOFFMAN, H. S., FLESHLER, M., & CHORNY, H. 1961. Discriminated bar press avoidance. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 4, 309–316.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HOGAN, L. E., BARON, A., & KAUFMAN, A. 1968. Temporal variables in the acquisition of human free-operant avoidance of “time-out.” Psychonomic Science, 10, 57–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HOLZ, W. C., & AZRIN, N. H. 1962. Recovery during punishment by intense noise. Psychological Reports, 11, 655–657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • HOLZ, W. C., AZRIN, N. H., & AYLLON, T. 1963. Elimination of behavior of mental patients by response produced extinction. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 407–412.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HOLZ, W. C., AZRIN, N. H., & ULRICH, R. E. 1963. Punishment of temporally spaced responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 6, 115–122.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • HUNT, H. F., & BRADY, J. V. 1955. Some effects of punishment and intercurrent “anxiety” on a simple operant. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48, 304–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • JENKINS, W. O., & STANLEY, J. C. 1950. Partial reinforcement: A review and critique. Psychological Bulletin, 47, 193–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • KAUFMAN, A. 1969. Response suppression in the CER paradigm with extinction as the aversive event. Psychonomic Science, 15, 15–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KAUFMAN, A., & BARON, A. 1966. Use of withdrawal of reinforcement within the escape-avoidance paradigm. Psychological Reports, 19, 959–965.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • KAUFMAN, A., & BARON, A. 1968. Suppression of behavior by time out punishment when suppression results in loss of positive reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11, 595–607.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • KEIRNAN, C. C. 1964. Positive reinforcement by light; Comment on Lockard’s article. Psychological Bulletin, 62, 351–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KELLER, F. S., & SHOENFELD, W. N. 1950. Principles of psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • KELLY, D. D. 1969. Operant suppression to a pre-reward stimulus in the monkey. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association meetings, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • KRAMER, T. J., & RILLING, M. 1969. Effects of timeout on spaced responding in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 283–288.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • LEITENBERG, H. 1965. Is time-out from positive reinforcement an aversive event? Psychological Bulletin, 64, 428–441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LEITENBERG, H. 1966. Conditioned acceleration and conditioned suppression in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9, 205–212.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • LEITENBERG, H., BERTSCH, G. J., & COUGHLIN, R. C. 1968. “Time-out from positive reinforcement” as the UCS in a CER paradigm with rats. Psychonomic Science, 13, 3–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LEWIS, D. J. 1960. Partial reinforcement: A selective review of the literature since 1950. Psychological Bulletin, 57, 1–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LOCKARD, R. B. 1963. Some effects of light upon the behavior of rodents. Psychological Bulletin, 60, 509–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • LOGAN, F. A. 1960. Incentive. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LYON, D. O. 1968. Conditioned suppression: Operant variables and aversive control. Psychological Record, 18, 317–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MCALLISTER, W. R., & MCALLISTER, D. E. 1962. Role of the CS and of apparatus cues in the measurement of acquired fear. Psychological Reports, 11, 749–756.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MCCALL, R. B. 1965. Stimulus change in light-contingent bar pressing. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 59, 258–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MCMILLAN, D. E. 1967. A comparison of the punishing effects of response-produced shock and response-produced time out. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 10, 439–449.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MELTZER, D., & BRAHLEK, J. A. 1970. Conditioned suppression and conditioned enhancement with the same positive UCS: An effect of CS duration. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 13, 67–73.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MILLER, N. B., & ZIMMERMAN, J. 1966. The effects of pre-time-out stimulus on matching to sample in humans. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9, 487–499.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MOFFAT, G. H., & MILLER, F. D. 1970. Escape and avoidance conditioning with omission of entertaining material as the aversive event. Psychonomic Science, 18, 97–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MORSE, W. H., & HERRNSTEIN, R. J. 1956. The maintenance of avoidance behavior using the removal of a conditioned positive reinforcer as the aversive stimulus. American Psychologist, 11, 430. (abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • NIGRO, M. R. 1966. Punishment of an extinguishing shock-avoidance schedule by time-out from positive reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 9, 53–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • PAVLOV, I. P. 1927. Conditioned reflexes. (Trans. G. V. Anrep) London: Oxford University Press. (Reprinted, New York: Dover, 1960).

    Google Scholar 

  • RILLING, M., ASKEW, H. B., AHLSKOG, J. E., & KRAMER, T. J. 1969 Aversive properties of the negative stimulus in a successive discrimination. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 917–932.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • SIDMAN, M. 1953. Two temporal parameters of the maintenance of avoidance behavior. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 46, 253–261.

  • SIDMAN, M. 1966. Avoidance behavior. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: Areas of research and application. New York: Apple ton-Century-Crofts. Pp. 449–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • SOLOMON, R. L., KAMIN, L. J., & WYNNE, L. C. 1953. Traumatic avoidance learning: The outcomes of several extinction procedures with dogs. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48, 291–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • SPENCE, K. W. 1960. Behavior theory and learning: Selected Papers. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • TERRACE, H. S. 1966. Stimulus control. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: Areas of research and application. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Pp. 271–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • TERRACE, H. S. 1971. Escape from S-. Learning and Motivation, 2, 148–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • THOMAS, J. R. 1964. Avoidance of time-out from two VI schedules of positive reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7, 168. (abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • THOMAS, J. R. 1965a. Discriminative time-out avoidance in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 8, 329–338.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • THOMAS, J. R. 1965b. Time-out avoidance from a behavior-independent contingency. Psychonomic Science, 3, 217–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • THOMAS, J. R. 1968. Fixed-ratio punishment by time-out of concurrent variable-interval behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11, 609–616.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • THOMPSON, D. B. 1964. Escape from an SD associated with fixed-ratio reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 7, 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • WAGNER, A. R. 1963. Conditioned frustration as a learned drive. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 142–148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WIKE, E. L. 1966. Secondary reinforcement. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • WILLOUGHBY, R. H. 1969. The effects of time out from positive reinforcement on the operant behavior of preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 7, 299–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Madison, New Jersey, 07940, USA

    Richard C. Coughlin Jr.

Authors
  1. Richard C. Coughlin Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This research was conducted while the author was supported by a National Defense Education Act, Title IV, Predoctoral Fellowship. It constitutes part of a dissertation submitted to the Graduate College of the University of Vermont in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. The advice and criticism of Harold Leitenberg and Justin Joffe throughout the various phases of preparation is gratefully acknowledged.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Coughlin, R.C. The Aversive Properties of Withdrawing Positive Reinforcement: A Review of the Recent Literature. Psychol Rec 22, 333–354 (1972). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03394098

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03394098

Search

Navigation