Skip to main content
Log in

Neuroendocrine regulation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in the tuberoinfundibular system

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Journal of Endocrinological Investigation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

References

  1. The ninth book of Galen on the usefulness of the parts. The Encephalon, Cranial nerves and Cranium. In: May M.T. (Ed.), Galen: on the usefulness of the parts of the body. De Usu Partium. Cornell University Press, New York, 1968, p. 424.

  2. Andreas Vesalius De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Libri Septem, Oporino, Basel, 1543, (impression anastatique). Culture et Civilisation, Bruxelles, 1964, Caput XI, p. 640.

  3. McCann S.M. The early history of the releasing factors. Endocrinology 130: 8, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Brown-Grant K., Harris G.W., Reichlin S. The effect of pituitary stalk section on thyroid function in the rabbit. J. Physiol. 136: 364, 1957.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Burgus R., Dunn T.F., Desiderio D., Vale W., Guillemin R. Derivés polypeptidiques de syntheses doués d’activité hypophysiotropic. Nouvelles observations. C. R. Acad. Sci (Paris) 269: 1870, 1969.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Boler J., Enzmann F., Folkers K., Bowers Y., Shally V. The identity of chemical and hormonal properties of the thyrotropin releasing hormone and pyro-glutamyl-histidil-proline amide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 37: 705, 1969.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Harris G.W. Neural control of the pituitary gland. Physiol. Rev. 28: 139, 1948.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Popa G.T., Fielding U. A portal circulation from the pituitary to the hypothalamic region. J. Anat. 65: 88, 1930.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Harris A.R.C., Christianson D., Smith M., Fang S.L., Braverman S., Vagenakis A. The physiological role of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the regulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin secretion in the rat. J.Clin. Invest. 61: 441, 1978.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Hall R., Amos J., Garry R., Buxton R.L. Thyroid-stimulating hormone response to synthetic thyrotropin releasing hormone in man. Br. Med. J. 2: 274, 1970.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Steinfelder H.J., Hauser P., Nakayama Y., Radovick S., McClaskey J.H., Taylor T., Weintraub B.D. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone regulation of human TSH beta expression: role of a pituitary-specific transcription factor (Pit-1/GHF-1) and potential interaction with a thyroid hormone-inhibitory element. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 3130, 1991.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Faglia G., Bitensky L., Pinchera A., Ferrari C., Paracchi A., Beck-Peccoz P., Ambrosi B., Spada A. Thyrotropin secretion in patients with central hypothyroidism: Evidence for reduced biological activity of immunoreactive thyrotropin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 48: 989, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Martin J.B., Boshans R., Reichlin S. Feedback regulation of TSH secretion in rats with hypothalamic lesions. Endocrinology 87: 1032, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Greer M.A., Sato N., Wang X., Greer S.E., McAdams S. Evidence that the major physiological role for TRH in the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei may be to regulate the set-point for thyroid hormone negative feedback on the pituitary thyrotroph. Neuroendocrinology 57: 569, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Kaplan M.M., Taft J.A., Reichlin S., Munsat T.L. Sustained rise in serum thyrotropin, thyroxine, and triiodothyronine during long term, continuous thyrotropin-releasing hormone treatment in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 63: 808, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Mannisto P.T., Pakkanen J., Ranta T., Koivusalo F., Leppaluoto J. Diurnal variations in medial basal and anterior hypothalamic thyroliberin [TRH] and serum thyrotropin [TSH] concentrations in male rats. Life Sci. 23: 1343, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Bruhn T.O., McFarlane M.B., Deckey J.E., Jackson I.M.D. Analysis of pulsatile secretion of thyrotropin and growth hormone in the hypothyroid rat. Endocrinology 131: 2615, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Brabant G., Prank K., Hoang-Vu C., Hesch R.D., Von Zur Mühlen A. Hypothalamic regulation of pulsatile thyrotropin secretion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 72: 145, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Fisher D.A., Dussault J.H., Sack J., Chopra I.J. Ontogenesis of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function and metabolism in man, sheep and rat. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 33: 59, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Jacobs L.S., Snyder P.J., Utiger R.D., Daughday W.H. Prolactin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in normal subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 36: 1069, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Müller E.E., Nisticò G. Brain messengers and the pituitary. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Kunert-Radek J., Pawlikowski M. The effect of thyrotropin releasing hormone on cell proliferation in the anterior pituitary gland of thyroidectomized rats. Neuroendocrinology 17: 92, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Pawlikowski M., Stepien H., Kunert-Radek J. Thyroxin inhibition of the proliferative response of the anterior pituitary to thyrotropin releasing hormone in vitro. Neuroendocrinology 18: 277, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Ramsdell J.S. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone inhibits GH4 pituitary cell proliferation by blocking entry into S phase. Endocrinology 126: 472, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Le Dafniet M., Lefebvre P., Barret A., Mechain C., Feinsten M.C., Brandi A.M., Peilion F. Normal and adenomatous human pituitaries secrete thyrotropin-releasing hormone in vitro: modulation by dopamine, haloperidol, and somatostatin. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 71: 480, 1990.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Hokfelt T., Fuxe K., Johansson O., Jeffcoate S., White N. Distribution of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in the central nervous system as revealed with immunocytochemistry. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 34: 389, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Choy V.J., Watkins W.B. Immunohistochemical localization of thyrotropin-releasing factor in the rat median eminence. Cell Tissue Res. 177: 371, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Johansson O., Hokfelt T. Thyrotropin releasing hormone, somatostatin, and enkephalin: distribution studies using immunohistochemical techniques. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 28: 364, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Johansson O. Hokfelt T., Jeffcoate S.L., White N., Sternberger L.A. Ultrastructural localization of TRH-like immunore-activity. Exp. Brain Res. 38: 1, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Lechan R.M., Jackson I.M.D. Immunohistochemical localization of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the rat hypothalamus and pituitary. Endocrinology 111: 55, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Aizawa T., Greer M.A. Delineation of the hypothalamic area controlling thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 109: 1731, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Brownstein M.J., Eskay R.L., Palkovits M. Thyrotropin releasing hormone in the median eminence is in processes of paraventricular nucleus neurons. Neuropeptides 2: 197, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Ishikawa K., Taniguchi Y., Inoue K., Kurosumi K., Suzuki M. Immunocytochemical delineation of thyrotrophic area: origin of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the median eminence. Neuroendocrinology 47: 384, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Swanson L.W., Kuypers H.G.J.M. The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus: cytoarchitectonic subdivisions and organization of projections to the pituitary, dorsal vagal complex, and spinal cord as demonstrated by retrograde fluorescence double-labeling methods. J. Comp. Neurol. 194: 555, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Wiegand S.J., Price J.L. The cells of the afferent fibers to the median eminence in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 192: 1, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Lechan R.M., Nestler J.L., Jacobson S. The tuberoinfundibular system of the rat as demonstrated by immunohistochemical localization of retrogradely transported wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) from the median eminence. Brain Res. 245: 1, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Ceccatelli S., Eriksson M., Hokfelt T. Distribution and coexistence of corticotropin-releasing factor-, neurotensin-, enkephalin-, cholecystokinin-, galanin- and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide/peptide histidine isoleucine-like peptides in the parvocellular part of the paraventricular nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 49: 309, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Palkovits M., Eskay R.L., Brownstein M.J. The course of thyrotropin-releasing hormone fibers in the median eminence in rats. Endocrinology 110: 1526, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Nishiyama T., Kawano H., Tsuruo Y., Maegawa M., Hisano S., Adachi T., Daikoku S., Suzuki M. Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)- containing neurons involved in the hypothalamic-hypophysial-thyroid axis. Light microscopic immunocytochemistry. Brain Res. 345: 205, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Jackson I.M.D., Reichlin S. Brain thyrotrophin-releasing hormone is independent of the hypothalamus. Nature 267: 853, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Meinster B., Villar M.J., Ceccatelli S., Hokfelt T. Comparative analysis on the localization of chemical messengers in magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamic supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei: an immunohistochemical study using experimental manipulations. Neuroscience 37: 603, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Skowsky R. Swan L. Effect of hypothalamic releasing hormone on neurohypophyseal arginine vasopressin (AVP) secretion. Clin. Res. 24: 101, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Weitzman R.E., Firemark H.M., Glatz T.H., Fisher D. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates of arginine and oxytocin in vivo. Endocrinology 104: 904, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Sowers J.R., Hershman J.M., Skowski W.R., Carlson H.E. Effect of TRH on serum arginine vasopressin in euthyroid and hypothyroid subjects. Horm. Res. 7: 232, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Jawadi M.H., Ho L., DeJong D.C. Effect of TRH on plasma arginine vasopressin. Horm. Res. 19: 91, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Jackson I.M.D., Reichlin S. Distribution and biosynthesis of TRH in the nervous system. In: Collu R., Barbeau A., Duchaine S.R., Rochefort J.G. (Eds.), Central nervous system effects of hypothalamic hormones and other peptides. Raven Press, New York, 1979, p. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Lechan R.M., Toni R. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone neuronal systems in the central nervous system. In. Nemeroff C. B. (Ed.), Neuroendocrinology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1992, p. 279.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Immunohistochemical localization in the rat brain of the precursor for thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Science 229: 1097, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Lechan R.M., Wu P., Jackson I.M.D., Wolfe H., Cooperman S., Mandel G., Goodman R. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone precursor: characterization in rat brain. Science 231: 159, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Wu P., Lechan R.M., Jackson I.M.D. Identification and characterization of thyrotropin-releasing hormone precursor peptides in rat brain. Endocrinology 121: 108, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Wu P., Jackson I.M.D. Post-translational processing of thyrotropin-releasing hormone precursor in rat brain: identification of 3 novel peptides derived from proTRH. Brain Res. 456: 22, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Nillni E.A., Sevarino K.A., Jackson I.M.D. Identification of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone-prohormone and its posttranslational processing in a transfected AtT20 tumoral cell line. Endocrinology 132: 1260, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Sevarino K.A., Goodman R.H., Spiess J., Jackson I.M.D., Wu P. Thyrotropin releasing hormone precursor processing: characterization of mature TRH and nonTRH peptides synthesized by transfected mammalian cells. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 21529, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Merchenthaler I., Meeker M., Petrusz P., Kizer J.S. Identification and immunocytochemical localization of a new thyrotropin-releasing hormone precursor in rat brain. Endocrinology 124: 1888, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Lechan R.M., Wu P., Jackson I.M.D. Immunolocalization of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone prohormone in the rat central nervous system. Endocrinology 119: 1210, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Nillni E.A., Sevarino K.A., Jackson I.M.D. Processing of proTRH to its intermediate products occurs before the packing into secretory granules of transfected AtT20 cells. Endocrinology 132: 1271, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Hisano S., Ishizuka H., Nishiyama T., Tsuruo Y., Katoh S., Daikoku S. Immunoelectron microscopic observations of hypothalamic TRH-containing neurons in rats. Exp. Brain Res. 63: 495, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Shioda S., Nakai Y., Sato A., Sunayama S., Shimoda Y. Electron-microscopic cytochemistry of the catecholaminergic innervation of TRH neurons in the rat hypothalamus. Cell Tissue Res. 245: 247, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Liposits Zs., Pauli W.K., Wu P., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Hypophysiotropic thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) synthesizing neurons. Ultrastructure, adrenergic innervation and putative transmitter action. Histochemistry 88: 1, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Lechan R.M., Wu P., Jackson I.M.D. Immunocytochemical distribution in rat brain of putative peptides from thyrotropin-releasing hormone prohormone. Endocrinology 121: 1879, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Liao N., Bulant M., Nicholas P., Vaudry H, Pelletier G. Electron microscope immunocytochemical localization of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) prohormone in the rat hypothalamus. Neuropeptides 11: 107, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Toni R., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Neuropeptide-Y-immunoreactive innervation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone-synthesizing neurons in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Endocrinology 26: 2444, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Toni R., Mosca S., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Ultrastructural localization of N-terminal peptides derived from proTRH in the rat hypothalamus. Cell Biol. Int. Rep. 14(Supp): 144, 1990 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  64. Grouselle D., Destombes J., Barret A., Pradelles P., Loudes C., Tixer-Vidal A., Faivre-Bauman A. Evidence for high molecular weight immunoreactive thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) precursor forms in the developing mouse hypothalamus. Simultaneous immunolocalization with TRH in cultured neurons. Endocrinology 126: 2454, 1990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Bulant M., Roussel J-P., Astier H., Nicolas P., Vaudry H. Processing of thyrotropin-releasing hormone prohormone (proTRH) generates a biologically active peptide, prepro-TRH-(160–169), which regulates TRH-induced thyrotropin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87: 4439, 1990.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Carr F.E., Fein H.G., Fisher C.U., Wessendorf M.W., Smallridge R.C. A cryptic peptide (160–169) of thyrotropin-releasing hormone prohormone demonstrates biological activity in vivo and in vitro. Endocrinology 131: 2653, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Valentijn K., Trachand Bunel D., Liao N., Pelletier G., Vaudry H. Release of pro-thyrotropin-releasing hormone connecting peptides PS4 and PS5 from perifused rat hypothalamic slices. Neuroscience 44: 223, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Segerson T.P., Kauer J., Wolfe H.C., Mobtaker H., Wu P., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Thyroid hormone regulates TRH biosynthesis in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat hypothalamus. Science 238: 78, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Liao N., Bulant M., Nicolas P., Vaudry H., Pelletier G. Thyroid hormone regulation of neurons staining for a single pro-TRH-derived cryptic peptide sequence in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 50: 217, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Dyess E.M., Segerson T.P., Liposits Zs., Pauli W.K., Kaplan M., Wu P., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Triiodothyronine exerts direct cell-specific regulation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Endocrinology 123: 2291, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Yamada M., Wilber J.F. Reciprocal regulation of preprothyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) mRNA in the rat anterior hypothalamus by thyroid hormone: dissociation from TRH concentrations during hypothyroidism. Neuropeptides 15: 49, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Yamada M., Satoh T., Monden T., Murakami M., Iriuchijima T., Wilber J.F., Mori M. Influence of hypothyroidism on TRH concentrations and preproTRH mRNA levels in rat hypothalamus: a simple and reliable method to detect preproTRH mRNA. Neuroendocrinology 55: 317, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Kakucska I., Rand W., Lechan R.M. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus is dependent upon feedback regulation by both triiodothyronine and thyroxine. Endocrinology 130: 2845, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Yamada M., Rogers D., Wilber J.F. Exogenous triiodothyronine lowers thyrotropin-releasing hormone concentration in the specific hypothalamic nucleus (paraventricular) involved in thyrotropin regulation and also in posterior nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 50: 560, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Mori M., Yamada M. Thyroid hormone regulates the amount of thyrotrophin-releasing hormone in the hypothalamic median eminence. J. Endocrinol. 114: 443, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Rondeel J.M.M., de Greet W.J., Klootwijk W., Visser T.J. Effects of hypothyroidism on hypothalamic release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in rats. Endocrinology 130: 651, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Bruhn T.O., Taplin J.H., Jackson I.M.D. Hypothyroidism reduces content and increases in vitro release of prothyrotropin-releasing hormone peptides from the median eminence. Neuroendocrinology 53: 511, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Germak J., Wilson T.A., Moore R.Y. Hypothalamic immunohistochemical localization of pro-TRH in two infants with tertiary hypothyroidism. 71st Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Seattle, Washington, 1989, p. 109 (Abstract).

  79. Van den Pol A.N. The magnocellular and parvocellular paraventricular nucleus of rat: intrinsic organization. J. Comp. Neurol. 206: 317, 1982.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Leranth Cs., Antoni F.A., Palkovits M. Ultrastructural demonstration of ovine CRF-like immunoreactivity (oCRF-LI) in the rat hypothalamus: processes of magnocellular neurons establish membrane specializations with parvocellular neurons containing oCRF-LI. Regul. Pep. 6: 179, 1983.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Sawchenko P.E., Swanson L.W. The organization of forebrain afférents to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 218: 121, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Gray T.S., Carney M.E., Magnuson D.J. Direct projection from the central amygdaloid nucleus to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: possible role in stress-induced adrenocorticotropin release. Neuroendocrinology 50: 433, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Sawchenko P.E., Swanson L.W. The organization of noradrenergic pathways from the brainstem to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in the rat. Brain Res. Rev. 4: 275, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Sawchenko P.E., Swanson L.W., Steinbush H.W.M., Verhofstad A.A.J. The distribution and cells of origin of serotoninergic inputs to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the rat. Brain Res. 277: 355, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Sawchenko P.E., Swanson L.W., Grzanna R., Howe P.R.C., Bloom S.R., Polak J.M. Colocalization of neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity in brainstem catecholaminergic neurons that project to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. J. Comp. Neurol. 241: 138, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Toni R., Mosca S., Marrama P., Lechan R.M. Ultrastructural organization of the afferent synaptic field to TRH tuberoinfundibular neurons in the rat hypothalamus. Neurosci. Lett. 39 (Suppl.): S213, 1990 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  87. Peters A., Palay S.L., Webster H. de F. The fine structure of the nervous system. The cells and their processes. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, 1970, p. 132.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Palkovits M. Neuropeptides in the hypothalamo-hypophyseal system: lateral retrochiasmatic area as a common gate for neuronal fibers towards the median eminence. Peptides 5 (Suppl.): 35, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. De Rooij J.A.M., Hommes O.R. The tubero-infundibular region in man. In: Swaab D.F., Schade J.P. (Eds.), Integrative hypothalamic activity. Progress in Brain Research, Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol. 41, 1974, p, 79.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Knigge K.M., Scott D.E. Structure and function of the median eminence. Am J. Anat. 129: 223, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Reichlin S. Neuroendocrine control of thyrotropin secretion. In: Ingbar S.H., Braverman L.E. (Eds.), Werner’s The Thyroid. A fundamental and clinical text, ed. 5. J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1986, p. 241.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Terry L.C., Crowley W.R. Regulation of growth hormone and thyrotropin secretion by somatostatin systems in rat brain. Neuroendocrinology 42: 218, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Lupulescu A., Nicolescu A.L., Ghorghiescu B., Meculiev E.L., Lungu M. Neural control of the thyroid gland: studies on the role of extrapyramidal and rhinencephalon areas in the development of the goiter. Endocrinology 70: 517, 1962.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Vriend J. Evidence for pineal gland modulation of the neuroendocrine-thyroid axis. Neuroendocrinology 36: 68, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Rowe J.W., Richert J.R., Klein D.C., Reichlin S. Relation of the pineal gland and environmental lighting to thyroid function in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 6: 247, 1970.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Di Renzo G.F., Quattrone A., Schettini G., Preziosi P. Effect of selective lesioning of serotonin-containing neurons on the TSH-inhibiting action of d-fenfluramine in male rats. Life Sci. 24: 489, 1979.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Ishikawa K., Kakegawa T., Suzuki M. Role of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus in the secretion of thyrotropin under adrenergic and cold stimulated conditions in the rat. Endocrinology 114: 352, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Shi Z-X., Levy A., Lightman S.L. Hippocampal inputs to the hypothalamus inhibits thyrotrophin and thyrotrophin-releasing hormone gene expression. Neuroendocrinology 57: 576, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Lugaresi E., Medori R., Montagna P., Baruzzi A., Cortelli P., Lugaresi A., Tinuper P., Zucconi M., Gambetti P. Fatal familial insomnia and dysautonomia with selective degeneration of thalamic nuclei. N. Eng. J. Med. 315: 997, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Joseph S.A. Knigge K.M. The endocrine hypothalamus: recent anatomical studies. In: Reichlin S., Baldessarini R.J., Martin J.B. (Eds). The Hypothalamus. Raven Press, New York, 1978, p. 15.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Bjorklund A., Lindvall Ø. Catecholaminergic brain stem regulatory systems. In: Mountcastle V.B., Bloom F.E., Geiger S.R. (Eds). Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Section I: Neurophysiology. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, Maryland, Vol. IV, 1986, p. 155.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Moore R.Y., Card J.P. Noradrenaline-containing neuron systems. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuronatomy. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol 2, part I, 1984, p. 125.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Nieuwenhuys R. Chemoarchitecture of the brain. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Hokfelt T., Johansson O., Goldstein M. Central catecholamine neurons as revealed by immunocytochemistry with special reference to adrenaline neurons. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuronatomy. Classical Transmitters in the CNS Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol 2, part I, 1984, p. 157.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Gallardo E., Chiocchio S.R., Tramezzani J.H. Sympathetic innervation of the median eminence. Brain Res. 290: 333, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Nakai Y., Shioda S., Ochai H., Kudo J., Hashimoto A. Ultrastructural relationship between monoamine-and TRH-containing axons in the rat median eminence as revealed by combined autoradiography and immunocytochemistry in the same tissue section. Cell Tissue Res. 230: 1, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Day T.A., Fergusson A.V., Renaud L.P. Noradrenergic afferents facilitate the activity of tuberoinfundibular neurons in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 41: 17, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Renaud L.P. Neurophysiological organization of the endocrine hypothalamus. In: Reichlin S., Baldessarini R.J., Martin J.B. (Eds.), The Hypothalamus. New York, Raven Press, 1978, p. 269.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Annunziato L., Di Renzo G., Lombardi G., Scopacasa F., Schettini G. Preziosi P., Scapagnini U. The role of central noradrenergic neurons in the control of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 100: 738, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Vjivian E., Krulich L., McCann S.M. Catecholaminergic regulation of TSH and growth hormone release in ovariectomized and ovariectomized, steroid-primed rats. Neuroendocrinology 26: 174, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Krulich L. Neurotransmitter control of thyrotropin secretion. Neuroendocrinology 35: 139, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Montoya E., Wilber J.F., Lorinez M. Catecholaminergic control of thyrotropin secretion. J. Lab. Med. 93: 887, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Terry L.C. Regulation of thyrotropin secretion by central epinephrine system. Neuroendocrinology 42: 102, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Grimm Y., Reichlin S. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): Neurotransmitter regulation of secretion by mouse hypothalamic tissue in vitro. Endocrinology 93: 626, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Hirooka Y., Hollander C.S., Suzuki S., Ferdinand P., Juan S-I. Somatostatin inhibits release of thyrotropin releasing factor from organ cultures of rat hypothalamus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75: 4509, 1978.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Young W.S. III, Kuhar M.J. Noradrenergic alpha-1 and alpha-2 receptors: light microscopic autoradiographic localization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77: 1696, 1980.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Tapia-Arancibia L., Arancibia S., Astier H. Evidence for alpha1-adrenergic stimulatory control of in vitro release of immunoreactive thyrotropin-releasing hormone from rat median eminence: in vivo corroboration. Endocrinology 116: 2314, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Leibovitz S.F., Jhanwar-Uniyal M., Dvorkin B., Makman M.H. Distribution of alpha-adrenergic, beta adrenergic and dopaminergic receptors in discrete hypothalamic areas of the rat. Brain Res. 233: 97, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Schettini G., Quattrone A., Di Renzo G., Lombardi G. Effect of 6-hydroxydopamine treatment on TSH secretion in basal and cold-stimulated conditions in the rat. Eur. J. Pharmachol. 56: 153, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Mannisto P.T. Central regulation of thyrotropin secretion in rats: methodological aspects, problems and some progress. Med. Biol. 61: 92, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Arancibia S., Tapia-Arancibia L., Astier H., Assenmacher I. Physiological evidence for alpha1-adrenergic facilitatory control of the cold-induced TRH release in the rat, obtained by push-pull cannulation of the median eminence. Neurosci Lett. 100: 169, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Zoeller R.T., Kabeer N., Albers H.E. Cold exposure elevates cellular levels of messenger ribonucleic acid encoding thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the paraventricular nucleus despite elevated levels of thyroid hormone. Endocrinology 127: 2955, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Mori M., Kobayashi I., Wakabayashi K. Suppression of serum thyrotropin concentrations following thyroidectomy and cold exposure by passive immunization with antiserum to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in rats. Metabolism 27: 1485, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Szabo M, Frohman L.A. Suppression of cold-stimulated thyrotropin secretion by antiserum to thyrotropin-releasing hormone Endocrinology 101: 1023, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Arancibia S., Tapia-Arancibia L., Assenmacher I., Astier H. Direct evidence of short-term cold-induced TRH release in the median eminence of unanesthetized rats. Neuroendocrinology 37: 225, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Rondeel J.M.M., de Greef W.J., Hop W.C.J., Rowland D.L., Visser T.J. Effect of cold exposure on the hypothalamic release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone and catecholamines. Neuroendocrinology 54: 477, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Ignar D.M., Khun C.M. Relative ontogeny of opioid and catecholaminergic regulation of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 123: 567, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Fowlers S., Kellogg C. Ontogeny of thermoregulatory mechanisms in the rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 7: 738, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Reymond M.J., Donda A., Lemarchand-Beraud T. Neuroendocrine aspects of aging: experimental data. Horm. Res. 31: 32, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Agnati L.F., Fuxe K., Zoli M., Zini I., Harfstrand A., Toffano G., Goldstein M. Morphometrical and microdensitometrical studies on phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase- and neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive neurons in the rostral medulla oblongata of the adult and old male rat. Neuroscience 26: 461, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Zoli M., Agnati L.F., Fuxe K., Zini I., Merlo Pich E., Grimaldi R., Harfstrand A., Goldstein M., Winkstrom A.C., Gustafsson J-A. Morphometrical and microdensitometrical studies on phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase- and neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive nerve terminals and on glucocorticoid receptor-immunoreactive nerve cell nuclei in the paraventricular nucleus in adult and old male rats. Neuroscience 26: 479, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Yamashita H., Kannan H., Ueta Y. Involvement of caudal ventrolateral medulla neurons in mediating visceroreceptive informations to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. In: Ciriello J., Caverson M.M., Poliosa C. (Eds.), The central neural organization of cardiovascular control. Progress in Brain Research, Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol. 81, 1989, p. 293.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Jaffer A., Rüssel V.A., Taljaard J.J.F. Noradrenergic and dopaminergic modulation of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Brain Res. 404: 267, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Chihara K., Arimura A., Shally A.V. Effect of intraventricular injection of dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine and 5-hydroxytryptamine on immunoreactive somatostatin release into rat hypophyseal portal blood. Endocrinology 104: 1656, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Negro-Vilar A., Ojeda S.R., Arimura A., McCann S.M. Dopamine and norepinephrine stimulate somatostatin release by median eminence fragments in vitro. Life Sci. 23: 1493, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Epelbaum J., Tapia-Arancibia L., Kordon C. Noradrenaline stimulates somatostatin release from incubated slices of the amygdala and the hypothalamic preoptic area. Brain Res. 215: 393, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Mannisto P., Ranta T., Tuomisto J. Dual action of adrenergic system on the regulation of thyrotropin secretion in the male rat. Acta Endocrinol. 90: 249, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Morley J.D. Neuroendocrine control of thyrotropin secretion. Endocr. Rev. 2: 396, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Selye H. A syndrome produced by diverse noxious agents. Nature 138: 32, 1936.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Andersson K., Eneroth P. Thyroidectomy and central catecholamine neurons in the male rat. Evidence for the existence of an inhibitory dopaminergic mechanism in the external layer of the median eminence and for a facilitatory noradrenergic mechanism in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus regulating TSH secretion. Neuroendocrinology 45: 14, 1987.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Andersson K., Eneroth P., Ross P. Effects of TRH and a rat TSH preparation on discrete hypothalamic and forebrain catecholamine nerve terminal networks in the hypophysectomized male rat. Eur. J. Pharmachol. 111: 295, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Härfstrand A., Fuxe K., Cintra A., Agnati L.F., Zini I., Wikstrom A.-N., Okret S., Yu Z-Y., Goldstein M., Steinbush H., Verhofstad A., Gustafsson J.-A. Glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity in monoaminergic neurons of rat brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83: 9779, 1986.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Smythe G.A., Bradshaw J.D., Vining R.F. Hypothalamic monoamine control of stress-induced adrenocorticotropin release in the rat. Endocrinology 113: 1062, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Lechuer J., Buda M., Tappaz M. Differential time course activation of the brain stem catecholaminergic groups following chronic adrenalectomy. Neuroendocrinology 56: 125, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Fuxe K., Agnati L.F., Häfstrand A., Cintra A., Aronsson M., Zoli M., Gustafsson J-A. Principles for the hormone regulation of wiring transmission and volume transmission in the central nervous system. In: Ganten D., Pfaff D. (Eds.), Neuroendocrinology of Mood. Current Topics in Neuroendocrinology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 1988, vol. 8, p. 1.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Kvetnansky R., Palkovits M., Mitro A., Torda T., Mikulaj L. Catecholamines in individual hypothalamic nuclei of acutely and repeatedly stressed rats. Neuroendocrinology 23: 257, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Kakucska I., Lechan R.M. Adrenal status affects TRH but not somatostatin gene expression in the hypothalamus. 73rd Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Washington, D.C., 1991, p. 234 (Abstract).

  148. Fuxe K., Agnati L.F., Zol M., Biagini G., Cintra A., Eneroth P. Regulatory peptides in the neuroendocrine system: aspects of the communicational and computational processes in peptidergic neurons and their steroidal regulation. In: Motta M. (Ed.), Brain Endocrinology, ed. 2. Raven Press, New York, 1991, p. 31.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M., Lee S.L. TRH prohormone: biosynthesis, anatomic distribution, and processing. In: Martini L., Ganong W.F. (Eds.), Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. Raven Press, New York, 11: 267, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Heritage A.S., Grant S.L.D., Stumpf W.E. 3H estradiol in catecholamine neurons of rat brain stem: combined localization by autoradiography and formaldehyde-induced fluorescence. J. Comp. Neurol. 176: 607, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Heritage A.S., Stumpf W.E., Sar M., Grant L.D. 3H-dihydrotestosterone in catecholamine neurons of rat brain stem: combined localization by autoradiography and formaldehyde-induced fluorescence. J. Comp. Neurol. 200: 289, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Kalra S.P, Kalra P.S. Opiod-adrenergic-steroid connection in the regulation of luteinizing hormone secretion in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 38: 418, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Pekary A.E., Knoble M., Garcia N.H., Bhasin S., Hershman J.M. Testosterone regulates the secretion of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and TRH precursor in the rat hypothalamic-pituitary axis. J. Endocrinol. 125: 263, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Emerson C.H., Seiler C.M., Alex S., Q.Y., Kakucska I., Lechan R.M. Gender and proTRH gene expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of normal and food deprived rats. (submitted).

  155. Rapp J.P., Pyunn L.L. A sex difference in plasma thyroxine and thyroid stimulating hormone in rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 146: 1021, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Christianson D., Roti E., Vagenakis A.G., Braverman L.E. The sex-related difference in serum thyrotropin concentration is androgen mediated. Endocrinology 108: 529, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Zgliczynski S., Kaniewsky M. Evidence for alpha-adrenergic receptor mediated TSH release in man. Acta Endocrinol. 95: 172, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Yoshimura M., Hachiya T., Ochi Y., Nagasaka A., Takeda A., Hidaka H., Refetoff S., Fang V.S. Suppression of elevated serum TSH levels in hypothyroidism by fusaric acid. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 45: 95, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Best N.R., Rees M.P., Barlow D.H., Cowen P.J. Effect of estradiol implant on noradrenergic function and mood in menopausal subjects. Psychoneuroendocrinology 17: 87, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Sanchez-Franco F., Garcia M.D., Caciceido L., Martin-Zurro A., Escobar del Rey F. Influence of sex phase of the menstrual cycle on thyrotropin (TSH) response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 37: 736, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Strollo F., Bollanti L., Ciamatori A., Morè M., Riondino G., Strollo G. The regulation of thyrotropin secretion in postmenopausal women. Neurosci. Lett. 43(Supp 43): 107, 1992 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  162. Faglia G. Beck-Peccoz P., Ferrari C. Ambrosi B., Spada A., Travaglini P. Enhanced plasma thyrotropin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone following oestradiol administration in man. Clin. Endocrinol. 2: 207, 1973.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Bjorklund A., Lindvall O. Dopamine-containing systems in the CNS. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuronatomy. Classical Transmitters in the CNS. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol 2, part I, 1984, p. 55.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Price J., Grossman A., Besser G.M., Rees L.H. Dopaminergic control of the rat thyrotroph. Neuroendocrinology 36: 125, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Mannisto P., Mattia J., Kaakkola S. Possible involvement of nigrostriatal dopamine system in the inhibition of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Eur. J. Pharmachol. 76: 403, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Krulich L., Giachetti A., Marchlewska-Koj A., Hefco B., Jameson H.E. On the role of central noradrenergic and dopaminergic system in the regulation of TSH secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 100: 496, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Ranta T. Mannisto P., Tuomisto J. Evidence for dopaminergic control of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. J. Endocrinol. 72: 329, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Mannisto P., Ranta T. Neurotransmitter control of thyrotropin secretion in hypothyroid rats. Acta Endocrinol. 89: 100, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Morley J.E., Brammer G.L., Sharp B., Yamada T., Yuwiler A. Hershman J.M. Neurotransmitter control of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 70: 263, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Ziem M.T., Beastall G.H., Ratcliffe J.G., Thomson J.A. A neuropharmacological study of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion in the rat. Acta Endocrinol. 84: 5, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Tuomisto J., Ranta T., Mannisto P., Saarinen A. Leppaluoto J. Neurotrasmitter control of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 30: 221, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Onaya T., Hashizume K. Effect of drugs that modify brain biogenic amine concentration on thyroid activation induced by exposure to cold. Neuroendocrinology 20: 47, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  173. Annunziato L., Di Renzo G.F., Schettlni G., Lombardi G., Scopacasa F. Scapagnini U., Preziosi P. Lack of evidence for an inhibitory role played by tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons on TSH secretion in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 28: 435, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Scapagnini U., Annunziato L., Di Renzo G.F., Schettini G., Preziosi P. Role of tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons in TRH-TSH secretion. Adv. Biochem. Psychopharmacol. 16: 369, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Chen H.J., Meites J. Effects of biogenic amines and TRH on release of prolactin and TSH in the rat. Endocrinology 96: 10, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Mueller G.P., Simpkins J., Meites J., Moore K.E. Differential effects of dopamine agonists and haloperidol on release of prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, growth hormone and luteinizing hormone in rats. Neuroendocrinology 20: 121, 1976.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Andersson K. Involvement of D1 dopamine receptors in the control of TSH secretion in the male rat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 135: 449, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Wakabayashi I., Miyazawa Y., Kanda M., Miki N., Demura H., Shizume K. Stimulation of immunoreactive somatostatin release from hypothalamic synaptosomes by high K+ and dopamine. Endocrinol. JPN. 25: 601, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  179. Maeda K., Frohman L.A. Release of somatostatin and thyrotropin-releasing hormone from rat hypothalamic fragments in vitro. Endocrinology 106: 1837, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Terry L.C., Rostad O.P., Martin J.B. The release of biologically and immunologically reactive somatostatin from perifused hypothalamic fragments. Endocrinology 100: 799, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  181. Andersson K., Fuxe K., Eneroth P., Härfstrand A., Agnati L.F. Involvement of D1 dopamine receptors in the nicotine-induced neuroendocrine effects and depletion of diencephalic catecholamine stores in the male rat. Neuroendocrinology 48: 188, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Rapoport B., Refetoff S., Fang V.S., Frisen H.G. Suppression of serum thyrotropin (TSH) by l-dopa in chronic hypothyroidism: Interrelationships in the regulation of TSH and prolactin secretion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 36: 256, 1973.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Feek CM., Sawers J.S.A., Brown N.S., Seth J., Irvine W.J., Toft A.D. Influence of thyroid status on dopaminergic inhibition of thyrotropin and prolactin secretion: Evidence for an additional feedback mechanism in the control of thyroid hormone secretion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 51: 585, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Healy D.L., Burger H.G. Increased prolactin and thyrotropin secretion following oral metoclopramide: dose response relationship. Clin. Endocrinol. 7: 195, 1977.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Scanlon M.F., Weightman D.R., Shale D.J., Mora B., Heath M. Snow M.H., Lewis M., Hall R. Dopamine is a physiological regulator of thyrotropin (TSH) secretion in normal men. Clin Endocrinol. 10: 7, 1979.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Massara F., Camanni F., Belforte L., Vergano V., Molinatti G.M. Increased thyrotropin secretion induced by sulpiride in man. Clin. Endocrinol. 97: 419, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  187. Scanlon M.F., Chan V., Heath M., Pourmand M., Rodriguez-Anao M.D., Weigthman D.R., Lewis M., Hall R. Dopaminergic control of thyrotropin, alpha-subunit, thyrotropin beta-subunit, and prolactin in euthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Dissociated responses to dopamine receptor blockade with metoclopramide in hypothyroid subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 53: 360, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Jacobs B.L., Azimita E.C. Structure and function of the brain serotonin system. Physiol. Rev. 72: 165, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Steinbush H.W.M. Serotonin-immunoreactive neurons and their projections in the CNS. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T., Kuhar M.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. Classical transmitters and transmitter receptors in the CNS. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol 3, part II, 1984, p. 68.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Bennet G.W., Edwardson J.A, Holland D., Jeffcoate S.L., White N. Release of immunoreactive luteinizing-hormone releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamic synaptosomes. Nature 257: 323, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Chen Y.F., Ramirez V.D. Serotonin stimulates thyrotropin-releasing hormone release from superfused rat hypothalami. Endocrinology 108: 2359, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Joseph-Bravo P., Charli J.L., Palacios J.M., Kordon C. Effect of neurotransmitters on the in vitro release of immunoreactive thyrotropin-releasing hormone from rat mediobasal hypothalamus. Endocrinology 104: 801, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Mess B., Peter L. Effect of intraventricular serotonin administration on pituitary-thyroid function. Endocrinol. Exp. 9: 105, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Radja F., Laporte A-M., Daval G., Verge D., Gozlan H., Hamon M. Autoradiography of serotonin receptor subtypes in the central nervous system. Neurochem. Int. 18: 1, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Jordan D., Pigeon P., McRae-DeGuerce A., Pujol J.F., Mornex R. Participation of serotonin in thyrotropin release. II. Evidence for the action of serotonin on the phasic release of thyrotropin. Endocrinology 105: 975, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Fukuda H., Mori M., Oshima K., Kobayashi I. The role of central serotoninergic and noradrenergic neurons in the regulation of nyctohemeral rhythm on plasma thyrotropin. J. Endocrinol. 3: 243, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Szafarczyk A., Hery M., Laplante E., Ixtar G., Assenmacher I., Kordon C. Temporal relatioship between the circadian rythmicity in plasma levels of pituitary hormones and in hypothalamic concentrations of releasing factors. Neuroendocrinology 30: 369, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Kerdelhue B., Palkovits M., Karteszi M., Reinberg A. Circadian variations in substance P, luliberin (LHRH) and thyroliberin (TRH) contents in hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic brain nuclei of adult male rats. Brain Res. 206: 405, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Fukuda H., Greer A. The effect of basal hypothalamic deafferentation on the nycthemeral rhythm of plasma TSH. Endocrinology 97: 749, 1975.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Mattila J., Mannisto P. Complex role of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the regulation of TSH in the rat. Horm. Res. 14: 165, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Smythe G.A., Bradshaw J.E., Cai W.Y., Symons R.G. Hypothalamic serotoninergic stimulation of thyrotropin secretion and related brain-hormone and drug interactions in the rat. Endocrinology 111: 1181, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Kallen P., Karlson M., Wiklund L. Possible excitatory amino acid afférents to nucleus raphe dorsalis of the rat investigated with retrograde wheat germ agglutinin and D[3H]aspartate tracing. Brain Res. 360: 285, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  203. Kalen P., Strecker R.E., Rosengren E., Bjorklund A. Regulation of striatal serotonin release by the lateral habenula-dorsal raphe pathway in the rat as demonstrated by in vivo microdialysis: role of excitatory amino acids and GABA. Brain Res. 492: 187, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Pan Z.Z., Williams J.T. GABA- and glutamate-mediated synaptic potentials in rat dorsal raphe neurons in vitro. J. Neurophysiol. 61: 719, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Vriend J., Wilber J.F. Influence of the pineal gland on hypothalamic content of TRH in the Syrian hamster. Horm. Res. 17: 108, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Brammer G.L., Morley J.d., Geller E., Yuwiler A., Hershman J.H. Hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis interactions with pineal gland in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 236: E415, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  207. Martino D., Bambini G., Vaudagna G., Breccia M., Baschieri L. Effects of continuous light and dark exposure on hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone in rats. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 8: 31, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Henley W.N., Bellush L.L. Streptozotocin-induced decreases in serotonin turnover are prevented by thyroidectomy. Neuroendocrinology 56: 354, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Coccaro E.F., Siever L.J., Kaurides I.A., Adam F., Campel G., Davis K.L. Central serotoninergic stimulation by fenfluramine challenge does not affect plasma thyrotropin-stimulating hormone levels in man. Neuroendocrinology 47: 273, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Cizza G., Brady L.S., Calogero A.L., Bagdy G., Lynn A.B., Kling M.A., Blackman M.R., Chrousos, Gold P.W. Central hypothyroidism is associated with advanced age in male Fisher 344/N rats: in vivo and in vitro studies. Endocrinology 131: 2672, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Caron P.J., Nieman L.K., Rose S.R., Nisula B.C. Deficient nocturnal surge of thyrotropin in central hypothyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62: 960, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Inagaki N., Yamatodani A., Ando-Yamamoto M., Tohyama M., Watanabe T., Wada H. Organization of histaminergic fibers in the rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 273: 283, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Panula P., Pirvola U., Auvinen S., Airaksinen M.S. Histamine-immunoreactive nerve fibers in the rat brain. Neuroscience 28: 585, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Steinbush H.W.M., Mulder A.H. Immunohistochemical localization of histamine in neurons and mast cells in the rat brain. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T., Kuhar M.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. Classical transmitters and transmitter receptors in the CNS. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol 3, part II, 1984, p. 126.

    Google Scholar 

  215. Schwartz J.C., Garbar M., Pollard H. Histaminergic transmission in the brain. In: Mountcastle V.B., Bloom F.E., Geiger S.R. (Eds.), Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Section I: Neurophysiology. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, Maryland, Vol. IV, 1986, p. 257.

    Google Scholar 

  216. Wada H., Inagaki N., Yamatodani A., Watanabe T. Is the histaminergic neuron system a regulatory center for whole-brain activity? TINS 14: 9, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  217. Taylor K.M., Gfeller E., Snyder S.H. Regional distribution of histamine and histidine in the brain of the Rhesus monkey. Brain Res. 41: 171, 1972.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Lipinsky J.F., Schamburg H.H., Baldessarini R.J. Regional distribution of histamine in human brain. Brain Res. 52: 403, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  219. Charli J-L., Joseph-Bravo P., Palacios J.M., Kordon C. Histamine-induced release of thyrotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamic slices. Eur J. Pharmacol. 52: 401, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Bennet G.W., Keeling M. H2-mediated histamine-induced release of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamic synaptosomes: a neuroendocrine role for histamine. Br. J. Pharmachol. 72: 151, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  221. Mitsuma T., Nogomori T., Sun D.H., Chaya M. Effects of histamine and related compounds on thyrotropin secretion in rats. Horm. Res. 23: 99, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Tuominen R.K., Mannisto P.T., Mattila J. Studies on the site and mechanism of the inhibitory action of intracerebral histamine on the cold stimulated thyrotropin secretion in male rats. Brain Res. 343: 329, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Touminen R.K., Mattila J., Mannisto P.T. Inhibition of the TSH secretion by histamine in male rats. Acta Endocrinol. 103: 88, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  224. Knigge U., Warberg J. The role of histamine in the neuroendocrine regulation of pituitary hormone secretion. Acta Endocrinol. 124: 609, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Carlson H.E., Chang J. Studies on the role of histamine on human pituitary function. Clin Endocrinol. 12: 461, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Pelletier G., Guy J., Allen Y.S., Polak J.M. Electron microscopic immunocytochemical localization of neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the rat brain. Neuropeptides 4: 319, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Sawchenko P.E., Pfeiffer S.W. Ultrastructural localization of neuropeptide Y and galanin immunoreactivity in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in the rat. Brain Res. 474: 231, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Everitt B.J., Hokfelt T., Terenius L., Tatemoto T., Mutt V., Goldstein M. Differential co-existence of neuropeptide Y (NPY)- like immunoreactivity with catecholamines in the central nervous system of the rat. Neuroscience 11: 443, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Bai F.L., Yamano M., Shiotani Y., Emson P.C., Smith A.D., Powell J.F., Tohyama M. An arcuato-paraventricular and dorsomedial hypothalamic neuropeptide Y-containing system which lacks noradrenaline in the rat. Brain Res. 331: 172, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Kerkerian L., Pelletier G. Effect of monosodium L-glutamate administration on neuropeptide Y-containing neurons in the rat hypothalamus. Brain Res. 369: 388, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. de Quidt M.E., Emson P.C. Distribution of neuropeptide Y-like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system-II. Immunohistochemical analysis. Neuroscience 18: 545, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  232. Swanson L.W., Sawchenko P.E. Hypothalamic integration: organization of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 6: 269, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Meister B., Ceccatelli S., Hokfelt T., Anden N.-E., Anden M., Theodorsson E. Neurotransmitters, neuropeptides and binding sites in the rat mediobasal hypothalamus; effects of monosodium glutamate (MSG) lesions. Exp. Brain Res. 76: 343, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Ciofi P., Fallon J.H., Croix D., Polak J.M., Tramu G. Expression of neuropeptide Y precursor-immunoreactivity in the hypothalamic dopaminergic tubero-infundibular system during lactation in rodents. Endocrinology 128: 823, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Smith Y., Parent A., Kerkerian L., Pelletier G. Distribution of neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity in the basal forebrain and upper brainstem of the Squirrel monkey (Saimiri Sciureus). J. Comp. Neurol. 236: 71, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Adrian T.E., Allen J.M., Bloom R.S., Ghatei M.A., Rossor M.N., Roberts G.W., Crow T.J., Tatemoto K., Polak J.M. Neuropeptide Y distribution in human brain. Nature 306: 584, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Härfstrand A. Brain neuropeptide Y mechanisms. Basic aspects and involvement in cardiovascular and neuroendocrine regulation. Acta Physiol. Scand 131(Suppl. 565), 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  238. Liposits Zs., Phelix C., Pauli W.K. Electron microscopic analysis of tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine-beta-hydroxylase and phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase immunoreactive innervation of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus in the rat. Histochemistry 84: 105, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Toni R. Lechan R.M. Hypophysiotropic neuroendocrine circuitries between thyrotropin-releasing hormone-, somatostatin- and neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive neurons in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN). 44 Meeting of the Italian Society of Anatomy. Bologna, Italy, 1990, p. 163 (Abstract).

  240. Toni R., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Somatostatinergic innervation of TRH neurons in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: evidence for unique specialization of contacts with thyroid hormone-responsive cells. 71th Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Seattle, USA, 1989, p.338 (Abstract).

  241. Toni R., Lechan R.M. I-naphthol pyronin B as a novel substrate for silver intensification: application to light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry of neuroendocrine systems. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 38: 1209, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Vallejo M. Carter D.A., Biswas S., Lightman S.L. Neuropeptide Y alters monoamine turnover in the rat brain. Neurosci. Lett. 73: 155, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Heilig M., Vecsei L., Wahlestedt C., Alling Ch., Widerlov E. Effects of centrally administered neuropeptide Y (NPY) and NPY 13–36 on the brain monoaminergic system of the rat. J. Neural Transm. 79: 193, 1990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Yokoo H. Schlesinger D.H., Golstein M. The effect of neuropeptide Y(NPY) on stimulation-evoked release of [3H]norepinephrine (NE) from rat hypothalamic and cerebral cortical slices. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 143: 283, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Martire M., Fuxe K., Pistritto G., Preziosi P., Agnati L.F. Neuropeptide Y increases the inhibitory effects of Clonidine on potassium evoked 3H-noradrenaline but not 3H-5-hydroxytryptamine release from synaptosomes of the hypothalamus and the frontoparietal cortex of the male Sprague-Dawley rat. J. Neural Transm. 78: 61, 1989.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Widdowson P.S., Masten T., Halaris A.E. Interactions between neuropeptide Y and alpha2- adrenoceptors in selective rat brain regions. Peptides 12: 71, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Rettori V., Milenkovic L. Aguila M.C., McCann S.M. Physiologically significant effect of neuropeptide Y to suppress growth hormone release by stimulating somatostatin discharge. Endocrinology 126: 2296, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Michel M.C. Receptors for neuropeptide Y: multiple subtypes and multiple second messengers. TIPS 12: 389, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Buma P. Synaptic and nonsynaptic release of neuromediators in the central nervous system. Acta Morphol. Neerl-Scand. 26: 81, 1988/89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Swanson L.W., Connelly M.A, Hartman B.K. Ultrastructural evidence for central monoaminergic innervation of blood vessels in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Brain Res. 136: 166, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Waldestein S.S. Thyroid-catecholamine interrelations. Ann. Rev. Med. 17: 123, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  252. Kunos G., Vermes-Kunos I., Nickerson M. Effects of thyroid state on adrenoceptor properties. Nature 250: 779, 1974.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Campbell G.A., Kurcz M., Marshall S., Meites J. Effects of starvation in rats on serum levels of follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyrotropin, growth hormone and prolactin: response to LH-releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 100: 580, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Harris A.R.C., Fang S.L., Azizi F., Lipworth L., Vagenakis A.G., Braverman L.E. Effect of starvation on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function in the rat. Metabolism 27: 1074, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Connors J.M., DeVito W.J., Hedge G.A. Effects of food deprivation on the feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in the rat. Endocrinology 117: 900, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Cohen J.H. III, Alex S., DeVito W.J., Braverman L.E., Emerson C.H. Fasting-associated changes in serum thyrotropin in the rat are influenced by gender. Endocrinology 144: 3025, 1989.

  257. Rondeel J.M.M., Heide R., De Greef W.J., van Toor H., van Haasteren G.A.C., Klootwijk W., Visser T.J. Effect of starvation and subsequent refeeding on thyroid function and release of hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Neuroendocrinology 56: 348, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Rodriguez M., Rodriguez F., Jolin R. Effect of restricted feeding, fasting, and diabetes on the relationship between thyroid hormone receptor occupancy, growth hormone induction, and inhibition of thyrotropin release. Endocrinology 131: 1612, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Morley J.E., Gordon J., Hershman J.M. Zinc deficiency, chronic starvation and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function. Am J. Clin. Nutr. 33: 1767, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Blake N.G., Eckland D.J.A., Foster O.J.F., Lightman S.L. Inhibition of hypothalamic TRH mRNA during food deprivation. Endocrinology 129: 2714, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Lechan R.M., Kakucska I., Rondeel J., Sciler C.M., Alex S., Emerson C. Regulation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) biosynthesis in nonthyroidal illness. 74th Meeting of the Endocrine Society, San Antonio, Texas, 1992, p. 450 (Abstract).

  262. Sahu A., Kalra P.S., Kalra S.P. Food deprivation and ingestion induce reciprocal changes in neuropeptide Y concentrations in the paraventricular nucleus. Peptides 9: 83, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Kalra S.P., Dube M.G., Sahu A., Phelps C.P., Kalra P.S. Neuropeptide Y secretion increases in the paraventricular nucleus in association with increased appetite for food. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 88: 10931, 1991.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. White J.D., Kershaw M. Increased hypothalamic neuropeptide Y expression following food deprivation. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 1: 41, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  265. Beck B., Jhanwar-Uniyal M., Burlet A., Chapleur-Chateau M., Leibowitz S.F., Burlet C. Rapid and localized alterations of neuropeptide Y in discrete hypothalamic nuclei with feeding status. Brain Res. 528: 245, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Morley J.D. Neuropeptide regulation of appetite and weight. Endocr. Rev. 8: 256, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Sahu A., Kalra S.P., Crowley W.R., Kalra P.S. Evidence that NPY-containing neurons in the brainstem project into selected hypothalamic nuclei: implication in feeding behavoir. Brain Res. 457: 376, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Sahu A., Dube M.G., Kalra S.P., Kalra P.S. Bilateral neural transection at the level of mesencephalon increases food intake and reduce latency to onset of feeding in response to neuropeptide. Peptides 9: 1269, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  269. Mitsuma J.F., Barnerji A., Prasad C., Mori M. Effects of streptozotocin-induced diabets mellitus on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in rats. Endocrinol. Jpn. 29: 695, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Rondeel J.M.M., de Greef W.J., Heide R., Visser T.J. Hypothalamo-hypophysial-thyroid axis in streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Endocrinology 130: 216, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Sahu A., Sninsky C.A., Phelps C.P., Dube M.G., Kalra P.S., Kalra S.P. Neuropeptide Y release from the paraventricular nucleus increases in association with hyperphagia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Endocrinology 131: 2979, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Williams G., Gill J.S., Lee Y.C., Cardoso H.M., Okpere B.D., Bloom S.R. Increased neuropeptide Y concentrations in specific hypothalamic regions of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Diabetes 38: 321, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. White J.D., Olchovsky D., Kershaw M., Berelowitz M. Increased hypothalamic content of preproneuropeptide Y messenger ribonucleic acid in streptozotocin-diabetic rats. Endocrinology 126: 765, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Ponsalle P., Uht R., Srivastava L., Shite J.D. Glucocorticoid regulation of hypothalamic NPY expression. 73th Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Washington, DC, 1991, p. 75 (Abstract).

  275. Reichlin S. Control of thyrotropic hormone secretion. In: Martini L., Ganong W.F. (Eds.), Neuroendocrinology. Academic Press, New York, vol 1, 1966, p. 445.

    Google Scholar 

  276. Martin J.B., Reichlin S. Clinical Neuroendocrinology. F.A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, 1987, p. 379.

    Google Scholar 

  277. Billington C.J., Briggs J.E., Grace M., Levine A.S. Effects of intracerebroventricular injection of neuropeptide Y on energy metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. 260: R321, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Toni R., Jackson I.M.D., Lechan R.M. Thyrotropin-releasing-hormone-immunoreactive innervation of thyrotropin-releasing-hormonetuberoinfundibular neurons in rat hypothalamus: anatomical basis to suggest ultrashort feedback regulation. Neuroendocrinology 52: 422, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  279. Katakami H., Arimura A., Frohman L.A. Hypothalamic somatostatin mediates the suppression of growth hormone secretion by centrally administered thyrotropin-releasing hormone in conscious rats. Endocrinology 117: 1139, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Ishikawa K., Katakami H., Frohman L.A. Neuroanatomical localization of the inhibitory effect of TRH on growth hormone secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 16: E354, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  281. Hyppa M., Motta M., Martini L. Ultrashort feedback control of follicle-stimulating hormone-releasing factor secretion. Neuroendocrinology 7: 227, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  282. Jew J., Leranth Cs., Arimura A., Palkovits M. Preoptic LHRH and somatostatin in the rat median eminence. An experimental light and electron microscopic immunohistochemical study. Neuroendocrinology 38: 169, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. Epelbaum J. Tapia-Arancibia L., Alonso G., Assenmacher I. Electron microscopic immunocytochemical study of somatostatin neurons in the periventircular nucleus of the rat hypothalamus with special reference to their relationship with homologous neuronal processes. Neuroscience 16: 297, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  284. Epelbaum J. Tapia-Arancibia L., Alonso G., Astier H., Kordon C. The anterior peirventricular hypothalamus is the site of somatostatin inhibition on its own release: An in vitro and immunocytochemical study. Neuroendocrinology 44: 225, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  285. Horvath S., Palkovits M. Synaptic interconnections among growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)-containing neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the rat hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology 48: 471, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Witkin J.W., Silverman A.J. Synaptology of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone neurons in rat preoptic area. Peptides 6: 263, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Leranth Cs., Segura L.M.G., Palkovits M., MacLusky N.J., Shanabrough M., Naftolin F. The LH-RH -containing neuronal network in the preoptic area of the rat: demonstration of LH-RH-containing nerve terminals in synaptic contact with LHRH neurons. Brain Res. 345: 332, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Pelletier G. Demonstration of contacts between neurons staining for LHRH in the preoptic area of the rat brain. Neuroendocrinology 46: 457, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  289. Richardson S.B., Twente S. Inhibition of rat hypothalamic somatostatin released by somatostatin. Evidence for somatostatin ultrashort loop feedback. Endocrinology 118: 2076, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. De Paolo L.V., King R., Carrillo A.J. In vivo and in vitro examination of an autoregulatory mechanism for luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 120: 272, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  291. Zanisi M., Messi E., Motta M., Martini L. Ultrashort feedback control of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone secretion in vitro. Endocrinology 121: 2199, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. MacCann S.M., Lumpkin M.D., Mizunuma H., Khorram O., Samson W.K. Recent studies on the role of brain peptides in control of anterior pituitary hormone secretion. Peptides 5(Suppl. 1): 3, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  293. Rinaman L., Miselis R.R. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone-immunoreactive nerve terminals synapse on the dendrites of gastric vagal motoneurons in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 294: 235, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Krisch B. Somatostatin-immunoreactive fibers into the brain stem and the spinal cord of the rat. Cell Tissue Res. 217: 531, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Palkovits M., Tapia-Arancibia L., Kordon C., Epelbaum J. Somatostatin connections between the hypothalamus and the limbic system in the rat brain. Brain Res. 250: 223, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Finley J.C.W., Maderdrut J.L., Roger L.J., Petruz P. The immunocytochemical localization of somato-statin-containing neurons in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience 6: 2173, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Shiosaka S., Takatsuki K., Sakanaka M., Inagaki S., Takagi H., Senba E., Kawai Y., Iida H., Minigawa H., Hara Y., Matsuzaki T., Toyama M. Ontogeny of somatostatin-containing neuron system of the rat: immunohistochemical analysis. II. Forebrain and diencephalon. J. Comp. Neurol. 204: 211, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Sakanaka M., Shiosaka S., Takatsuki K., Inagaki S., Senba E., Kawai Y., Matsuzaki T., Toyama M. Experimental immunohistochemical studies on the amygdalofugal peptidergic (substance P and somatostatin) fibers in the stria terminalis of the rat. Brain Res. 221: 231, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Ishikawa K., Taniguchi Y., Kurosumi K., Suzuki M., Shinoda M. Immunohistochemical identification of somatostatin-containing neurons projecting to the median eminence of the rat. Endocrinology 121: 94, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Kawano H., Daikoku S. Somatostatin-containing neurons systems in the rat hypothalamus: retrograde tracing and immunohistochemical studies. J. Comp. Neurol. 272: 293, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  301. Merchenthaler I., Setalo G., Csontos C., Petruz P., Flerko B., Negro-Vilar A. Combined retrograde tracing and immunocytochemical identification of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone- and somatostatin-containing neurons projecting to the median eminence of the rat. Endocrinology 125: 2812, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Krisch B. Immunohistochemical results on the distribution of somatostatin in the hypothalamus and in limbic structures of the rat. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 27: 1389, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Epelbaum J., Arancibia L.T., Herman J.P., Kordon C., Palkovits M. Topography of median eminence somatostatinergic innervation. Brain Res. 230: 412, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Makara G.B., Palkovits M., Antoni F.A., Kiss J.Z. Topography of the somatostatin-immunoreactive fibers to the stalk-median eminence of the rat. Neuroendocrinology 37: 1, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Palkovits M., Kobayashi R.M., Brown M., Vale W. Changes in hypothalamic, limbic and extrapyramidal somatostatin levels following various hypothalamic transections in rat. Brain Res. 195: 499, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Desy L., Pelletier G. Immunohistochemical localization of somatostatin in the human hypothalamus. Cell Tissue Res. 184: 491, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Arancibia S., Tapia-Arancibia L., Roussel J.P., Assenmacher I., Astier H. Effect of morphine on cold-induced TRH release from the median eminence of anaesthetized rats. Life Sci. 38: 59, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  308. Michalkiewicz M., Suzuki M., Kato M. Evidence for a synergistic effect of somatostatin on vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-induced prolactin release in the rat: comparison with its effect on thyrotropin (TSH)-releasing hormone-stimulated TSH release. Endocrinology 121: 371, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  309. Levy A., Mantovelle M.C., Lightman S.L., Young W.S. III. The effects of pituitary stalk transection, hypophysectomy and thyroid hormone status on insulin-like growth factor 2-, growth hormone releasing hormone, and somatostatin mRNA prevalence in rat brain. Brain Res. 579: 1, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Berelowitz M., Maeda K., Harris S., Frohman L.A. The effect of alterations in the pituitary-thyroid axis on hypothalamic content and in vitro release of somatostatin-like immunoreactivity. Endocrinology 107: 24, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  311. Fernandez-Durango R., Arimura A., Fishback J., Schally A.V. Hypothalamic somatostatin and LH-RH after hypophysectomy, in hyper- or hypothyroidism, and during anesthesia in rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 157: 235, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Yaffe B.M., Samuels H. Hormonal regulation of the growth hormone gene. Relationship of the rate of transcription to the level of nuclear thyroid hormone-receptor complexes. J. Biol. Chem. 259: 6284, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  313. Jones P.M., Burrin J.M., Ghatei M.A., O’Halloran J., Legon S., Bloom S.R. The influence of thyroid hormone status on the hypothalamo-hypophyseal growth hormone axis. Endocrinology 126: 1374, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Baldino F., Fitzpatrick-McElligott S., O’Kane T.M., Gozes I. Hormonal regulation of somatostatin messenger RNA. Synapse 2: 317, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. Chowen-Breed J.A., Steiner R.A., Clòifton D.K. Sexual dimorphism and testosterone-dependent regulation of somatostatin-gene expression in the periventricular nucleus of the rat brain. Endocrinology 125: 357, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Reichlin S. Somatostatin. N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 1495, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  317. Brabant G., Ocran K., Ranft U., von zur Muhlen A., Hesch R.D. Physiological regulation of thyrotropin. Biochemie 71: 293, 1989.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Williams T.C., Kelijman M., Crelin W.C., Downs T.R., Frohman L.A. Differential effects of somatostatin (SRIH) and a SRIH analog, SMS 201–995, on the secretion of growth hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 66: 39, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Sawchenko P.E., Swanson L.W., Joseph S.A. The distribution and cells of origin of ACTH (1–39)-stained varicosities in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Brain Res. 232: 265, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  320. Kharchaturian H., Lewis M.E., Tsou K., Watson S.J. Beta-endorphin, alpha-MSH, ACTH, and related peptides. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. GABA and neuropeptides. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol. 4, 1985, p. 216.

    Google Scholar 

  321. Petruz P., Merchenthaler I., Maderdrut J.L. Distribution of enkephalin-containing neurons in the central nervous system. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T. (Eds). Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. GABA and neuropeptides. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol.4, 1985, p. 273.

    Google Scholar 

  322. Hokfelt T., Fahrenkrug J., Tatemoto K., Mutt V., Wener S., Hulting A.-L., Terenius L., Chang K.J. The PHI (PHI-27)/corticotropin-releasing factor/enkephalin immunoreactive hypothalamic neuron: Possible morphological basis for integrated control of prolactin, corticotropin, and growth hormone secretion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 895, 1983.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Liao N., Bulant M., Nicolas P., Vaudry H., Pelletier G. Anatomical interactions of proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-related peptides, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) fibers and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of rat hypothalamus. Neuropeptides 18: 63, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  324. Judd A.M., Hedge G.A. The roles of the opiod peptides in controlling thyroid stimulating hormone release. Life Sci. 31: 2529, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  325. Judd A.M., Hedge G.A. Direct pituitary stimulation of thyrotropin secretion by opioid peptides. Endocrinology 113: 706, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  326. Jordan D., Veisseire M., Borson-Charzot F., Mornex R. In vitro effects of endogenous opiate peptides on thyrotropin function: inhibition of thyrotropin-releasing hormone release and absence of effect on thyrotropin release. Neurosci. Lett. 67: 289, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  327. Tapia-Arancibia L., Astier H. Opiate inhibition of K+ induced TRH release from superfused mediobasal hypothalamus in rats. Neuroendocrinology 37: 166, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  328. Stengaard-Pedersen K. Opioid peptides and receptors. Localization, interactions and relationships to other molecules in the rodent brain, especially the hippocampal formation. Prog. Histochem. Cytochem. 20: 1, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  329. Mannisto P.T., Rauhala P., Tuominen R., Tuomisto R., Mattila J. Dual action of morphine on cold-stimulated thyrotropin secretion in male rats. Life Sci. 35: 1101, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  330. Sharp B., Morley J.E., Carlson H.E., Gordon J., Briggs J., Melmed S., Hershman M. The role of opiates and endogenous opiod peptides in the regulation of rat TSH secretion. Brain Res. 219: 335, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  331. Tian Y., Eaton M.J., Lookingland K.J., Moore K.E. Effect of acute morphine treatment on incertohypothalamic dopaminergic neurons: the role of 5-hydroxytryptaminergic neurons. 21st Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, New Orleans, 1991, p. 822 (Abstract).

  332. Berglund LA., Millard W.J., Gabriel S.M., Simpkins J.W. Opiate-thyroid hormone interactions in the regulation of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 52: 303, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  333. Ibata Y., Kawakami F., Fukui K., Obata-Tsuto H.L., Tanaka M., Kuba T., Okamura H., Morimoto N., Yanaihara C., Yanaihara N. Light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry of neurotensin-like immunoreactive neurons in the rat hypothalamus. Brain Res. 302: 221, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  334. Emson P.C., Goedert M., Mantyh P.W. Neurotensin-containing neurons. In: Bjorklund A., Hokfelt T. (Eds.), Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. GABA and neuropeptides. Elsevier, Amsterdam, vol. 4, 1985, p. 355.

    Google Scholar 

  335. Toni R. Jackson I.M.D., Leeman S.E., Lechan R.M. Innervation of rat hypothalamic paraventricular (PVN) TRH-synthesizing neurons by immunoreactive neurotensin. 19th Annual Meeting of the Society of Neuroscience, Phoenix, 1989, p. 741 (Abstract).

  336. Kiss A., Palkovits M., Antoni F.A., Eskay R.L., Skirboll L.R. Neurotensin in the rat median eminence: the possible source of neurotensin-like fibers and varicosities in the external layer. Brain Res. 416: 129, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  337. Manberg P.J., Youngblood W.W., Nemeroff C.B., Rossor M., Iversen L.L., Prange A.J. Jr, Kizer J.S. Regional distribution of neurotensin in human brain. J. Neurochem. 38: 1777, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  338. Vijayan E., McCann S.M. Effects of substance P and neurotensin on growth hormone and thyrotropin release in vivo and in vitro. Life Sci. 26: 321, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  339. Maeda K., Frohman L.A. Dissociation of systemic and central effects of neurotensin on the secretion of growth hormone, prolactin, and thyrotropin. Endocrinology 103: 1903, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  340. Sheppard M.C., Kronheim S., Pimstone B.L. Effect of substance P, neurotensin and the enkephalins on somatostatin release from the rat hypothalamus in vitro. J. Neurochem. 32: 647, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  341. Abe H., Chihara K., Chiba T., Shigeru M., Fujita A. Effect of intraventricular injection of neurotensin and other various bioactive peptides on plasma immunoreactive somatostatin levels in rat hypophysial portal blood. Endocrinology 108: 1939, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  342. Shimatsu A., Kato Y., Matsushita N., Katakami H., Yanaihara H., Imura H. Effect of glucagon, neurotensin, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide on somatostatin release from perfused rat hypothalamus. Endocrinology 110: 2113, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  343. Myers R.D., Lee T.F. Neurotensin perfusion of rat hypothalamus: dissociation of dopamine release from body temperature change. Neuroscience 12: 241, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  344. Nemeroff C.B., Bissette G., Manberg P.J., Osbahr A.J. III, Breese G.R., Prange A.J. Jr. Neurotensin-induced hypothermia: evidence for an interaction with dopaminergic systems and the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Brain Res. 195: 69, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  345. Sheppard M.C., Sheennan K.I. The effect of thyroid hormones in vitro and in vivo on hypothalamic neurotensin release and content. Endocrinology 112: 1996, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  346. Sheppard M.C., Askew R.D., Shennan K.I.J., Franks S., Ramsden D.B. Neurotensin regulation of TSH secretion in the rat. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 113: 248, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  347. Mezey E., Kiss J.Z. Vasoactive intestinal peptide-containing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus may participate in regulating prolactin secretion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 82: 245, 1985.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  348. Ceccatelli S., Fahrenkrug J., Villar M.J., Hokfelt T. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide/peptide histidine isoleucine immunoreactive neuron systems in the basal hypothalamus of the rat with special reference to the portal vasculature: an immunohisto-chemical and in situ hybridization study. Neuroscience 4: 483, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  349. Hokfelt T., Fahrenkrug J., Ju G., Ceccatelli S., Tsuruo Y., Meister B., Mutt V., Rundgren M., Brodin E., Terenius L., Hulting A.-L., Werner S., Bjorklund A., Vale W. Analysis of peptide histidine-isoleucine/vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-immunoreactive neurons in the central nervous system with special reference to thier relation to corticotropin releasing factor- and enkephalin-like immunoreactivities in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. Neuroscience 23: 827, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  350. Watts A.G., Swanson L.W. Efferent projections of the suprachiasmatic nucleus. II. Studies using retrograde transport of fluorescent dyes and simultaneous peptide immuno-histochemistry in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 258: 230, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  351. Besson J., Rotsztejn W., Laburthe M., Epelbaum J., Beaudet A., Kordon C., Rosselin G. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP): brain distribution, subcellular localization and effect of deafferentation of the hypothalamus in male rats. Brain Res. 165: 79, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  352. Marley P.D., Emson P.C., Hunt S.P., Fahrenkrug J. A long ascending projection in the rat brain containing vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Neurosci. Lett. 27: 261, 1981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  353. Roberts G.W., Woodhams P.L., Bryant M.G., Crow T.J., Bloom S.R., Polak J.M. VIP in the rat brain: evidence for a major pathway linking the amygdala and hypothalamus via the stria terminalis. Histochemistry 65: 103, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  354. Loren J., Emson P.C., Fahrenkrug J., Bjorklund A., Alumets J., Hakanson R., Sundler F. Distribution of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the rat and mouse brain. Neuroscience 4: 1953, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  355. Sims K.B., Hoffman D.L., Said S.I., Zimmerman E.A. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in mouse and rat brain: an immunocytochemical study. Brain Res. 186: 165, 1980.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  356. Rostene W.H. Neurobiological and neuroendocrine functions of the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). Prog. Neurobiol. 22: 193, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  357. Toni R., Mosca S. Hypothyroidism increases VIP immunoreactivity and visualizes ultrashort circuitries between VIP and TRH-hypophysiotropic neurons in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 15(Suppl. 1): 133, 1992 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  358. Vijvian E., Samson W.K., Said S.I., McCann S.M. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP): evidence for a hypothalamic site of action to release growth hormone, luteinizing hormone and prolactin in conscious ovariectomized rats. Endocrinology 104: 53, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  359. Mitsuma T., Nogimori T., Chaya M. Effects of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in rats. Endocr. Exp. 18: 93, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  360. Epelbaum J., Tapia-Arancibia L., Besson J., Rotsztejn W., Kordon C. Vasoactive intestinal peptide inhibits release of somatostatin from hypothalamus in vitro. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 58: 493, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  361. Tapia-Arancibia L., Reichlin S. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and PHI stimulate somatostatin release from rat cerebral cortical and diencephalic cells in dispersed culture. Brain Res. 336: 67, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  362. Reichlin S. Neuroendocrine significance of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 527: 431, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  363. Toni R., Kakucska I., Mosca S., Marrama P., Lechan R.M. Hypothyroidism increases vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) immunoreactivity and gene expression in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. Endocrinology 131: 976, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  364. Ceccatelli S., Giardino L., Calzà L. Response of hypothalamic peptide mRNAs to thyroidectomy. Neuroendocrinology 56: 694, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  365. Lam K.S., Lechan R.M., Minamitani N., Segerson T.P., Reichlin S. Vasoactive intestinal peptide in the anterior pituitary is increased in hypothyroidism. Endocrinology 124: 1077, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  366. Franklyn J.A., Wood D.F., Balfour N.J., Ramsden D.B., Docherty K., Chin W.W., Sheppard M.C. Effect of hypothyroidism and thyroid hormone replacement in vivo on pituitary cytoplasmic concentrations of thyrotropin-β and alpha -subunit messenger ribonucleic acids. Endocrinology 120: 2279, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  367. Uribe R.M., Redondo J.L., Charli J-L., Joseph-Bravo P. Suckling and cold stress rapidly and transiently increase TRH mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus. Neuroendocrinology 58: 140, 1993

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  368. de Greef W.J., Visser T.J. Evidence for the involvement of hypothalamic dopamine and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in suckling-induced release of prolactin. J. Endocrinol. 91: 213, 1981.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  369. Fink G., Koch Y., Ben Aroya N. Release of thyrotropin releasing hormone into hypophysial portal blood is high relative to other neuropeptides and may be related to prolactin secretion. Brain Res. 243: 186, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  370. Decavel C., van den Pool A.N. GABA: a dominant transmitter in the hypothalamus. J. Comp. Neurol. 302: 1019, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  371. Roland B.L., Sawchenko P.E. Local distribution and origins of some GABAergic projections to the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in the hypothalamus of the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 332: 123, 1993.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  372. Vijayan E., McCann S.M. Effects of intraventricular injection of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on plasma growth hormone and thyrotropin in conscious ovariectomized rats. Endocrinology 103: 1888, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  373. Mattila J., Mannisto P. Modification of GABAergic activity and TSH secretion. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 47: 241, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  374. Apud J.A., Cocchi D., Locatelli V., Masotto C., Müller E.E., Racagni G. Biochemical and functional aspects on the control of prolactin release by the hypothalamo-pituitary GABAergic system. Psychoneuroendocrinology 13: 3, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  375. Arancibia S., Briozzo P. Peripheral administration of Picrotoxin and bicucullin stimulates in vivo somatostatin release from rat median eminence. Neurosci. Lett. 111: 211, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  376. Gilles G., Davidson K. GABAergic influences on somatostatin secretion from hypothalamic neurons cultured in defined medium. Neuroendocrinology 55: 248, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  377. Jordan D., Poncet C., Mornex R. Role of GABA in the control of thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Brain Res. 268: 105, 1983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  378. Stryker T., Greenblatt D., Reichlin S. Somatostatin suppression as a possible cause of GH and TSH secretory response to benzodiazepines. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Endocrinology, Quebec City, 1984 (Abstract 2331).

  379. Scarborough D.E. Cytokine modulation of pituitary hormone secretion. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 594: 169, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  380. Nisticò G., De Sarro G. Is interleukin 2 a neuromodulator in the brain? TIPS 14: 146, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  381. Larsson I., Landstrom L.E., Lamer E., Lundgren E., Miorner H., Strannegard L. Interferon production in glia and glioma cell lines. Infect. Immun. 22: 786, 1978.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  382. Lechan R.M., Toni R., Clark D.B., Cannon J.G., Shaw A.R., Dinarello CA., Reichlin S. Immunoreactive interleukin 1-beta localization in the rat forebrain. Brain Res. 514: 135, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  383. Toni R., Lechan R.M. Interleukin 1 in the hypothalamo-pituitary neuroendocrine system. In: Maggi M., Geenen V. (Eds.), Horizons in Endocrinology II. Serono Symposia Publications from Raven Press, New York, 1991, vol 76, p. 109.

    Google Scholar 

  384. Breder C.D., Dinarello C.A., Saper C.B. Interleukin-1 immunoreactive innervation of the human hypothalamus. Science 240: 321, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  385. Schobitz B., Voorhuis A.M., De Kloet E.R. Localization of interleukin 6 mRNA and interleukin 6 receptor mRNA in rat brain. Neurosci Lett. 136: 189, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  386. Breder C.D., Saper C.B. Tumor necrosis factor immunoreactive innervation in the mouse brain. 18th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, Toronto, 1988, p. 1280 (Abstract).

  387. Kakucska I., Romero L.I., Clark B.D., Rondeel J.M.M., Qi Y., Alex S., Emerson C.H., Lechan R.M. Suppression of Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression by interleukin-1 beta (IL-1) in the rat: Implications for nonthyroidal illness. Neuroendocrinology, in press.

  388. Farrar W.L., Kilian P.L., Riff M.R., Hill J.M., Pert C.B. Visualization and characterization of interleukin 1 receptors in brain. J. Immunol. 139: 459, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  389. Scarborough D.E., Lee S.L., Dinarello CA, Reichlin S. Interleukin-1 beta stimulates somatostatin biosynthesis in primary culture of fetal rat brain. Endocrinology 124: 549, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  390. Kasting N.W., Martin J.B. Altered release of growth hormone and thyrotropin induced by endotoxin in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 243: E332, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  391. Scarborough D.E. Somatostatin regulation by cytokines. Metabolism 39: 108, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  392. Lyson K., Milenkovic L., McCann S.M. The stimulatory effect of interleukin-6 on corticotropin-releasing factor and thyrotropin releasing hormone secretion in vitro. 20th Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, St. Louis, 1990, p. 1212 (Abstract).

  393. Pang X-P., Hershman J.M., Mirell C.J., Pekary A.E. Impairment of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function in rats treated with human recombinant tumor necrosis factor-alpha (Cachectin). Endocrinology 125: 76, 1989.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  394. McCann S.M., Rettori V., Milenkovic L., Jurcovica J., Gonzales M.C. Role of monokines in control of anterior pituitary hormone release. In: Porter J.C., Jezova D. (Eds.), Circulating regulatory factors and neuroendocrine function. Plenum Press, New York, 1990, p. 315.

    Google Scholar 

  395. Lyson K., McCann S.M. The effect of interleukin-6 on pituitary hormone release in vivo and in vitro. Neuroendocrinology 54: 262, 1991.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  396. Scarborough D.E. Endotoxin (LPS), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and related cytokines stimulate somatostatin (SRIF) biosynthesis by fetal rat hypothalamic cells in vitro. In: Oppenheim J.J., Powanda M.C., Kluger M.J., Dinarello C.A. (Eds.), Molecular and Cellular Biology of Cytokines. Progress in Leukocyte Biology, Wiley-Liss Inc., New York, vol 10A, 1990, p. 445.

    Google Scholar 

  397. Scarborough D.E., Dinarello C.A. Tumor necrosis factor alpha augments basal and interleukin-1 beta-stimulated somatostatin synthesis by rat diencephalic cells in vitro. 71st Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Seattle, 1989, p. 103 (Abstract).

  398. Beutler B., Cerami A. Cachectin (tumor necrosis factor): a macrophage hormone governing cellular metabolism and inflammatory response. Endocr. Rev. 9: 57, 1988.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  399. Gonzales M.C., Riedel M., Rettori V., Yu W.H., McCann S.M. Effect of recombinant human gamma — interferon on the release of anterior pituitary hormones. PNEI 3: 49, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  400. Gonzales M.C., Aguila M.C., McCann S.M. In vitro effects of recombinant human gamma -interferon on growth hormone release. PNEI 4: 222, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  401. Koenig J.I., Snow K., Clark B.D., Toni R., Cannon J.G., Shaw A.R., Dinarello C., Reichlin S., Lee S.L., Lechan R.M. Intrinsic pituitary interleukin-1 beta is induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide. Endocrinology 126: 3053, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  402. Tibaldi J.M., Surks M.I. Animal models of nonthyroid disease. Endocr. Rev. 6: 87, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  403. Berkenbosch F., de Rijk R., Del Rey A., Basedovsky H. Neuroendocrinology of interleukin-1. In: Porter J.C., Jezova D. (Eds.), Circulating regulatory factors and neuroendocrine function. Plenum Press, New York, 1990, p. 303.

    Google Scholar 

  404. Moccheggiani E., Amadio L., Fabris N. Neuroendocrine-thymus interactions. I. In vitro modulation of thymic factor secretion by thyroid hormone. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 13: 139, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  405. Provinciali M., Muzzoli M., Fabris N. Influence of lymphokines and thyroid hormones on natural killer activity. In: Pinchera A., Insber S.K., McKenzie J.M., Fenzi G.F. (Eds.), Thyroid Autoimmunity. Plenum Press, New York, 1987, p. 509.

    Google Scholar 

  406. Ong M.L., Malkin D.G., Malkin A. Alteration of lymphocytes reactivities by thyroid hormone. Int. J. Immunopharmachol. 8: 755, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  407. Frawley L.S., Leong D.A., Neill J.D. Oxytocin attenuates TRH-induced TSH release from rat pituitary cells. Neuroendocrinology 40: 201, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  408. Lumpkin M.D., Samson W.K., McCann S.M. Arginine vasopressin releases thyroid stimulating hormone in vitro and in vivo. Fed. Proc. 42: 973, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  409. Vijayan S., Samson W.K., McCann S.M. In vivo and in vitro effects of cholecystokinin on gonadotropin, prolactin, growth hormone and thyrotropin in the rat. Brain Res. 172: 295, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  410. Fuxe K., Agnati L.F., Vanderhaeghen J-J., Tatemoto K., Andersson K., Eneroth P., Härfstrand A., Von Euler G., Toni R., Goldstein M., Mutt V. Cholecystokinin neuron systems and their interactions with the presynaptic features of the dopamine neuron system. A morphometric and neurochemical analysis involving studies on the action of cholecystokinin-8 and cholecystokinin-58. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 448: 231, 1985.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  411. Vijayan E. Samson W.K., McCann S.M. Effects of intraventricular injection of gastrin on release of LH, prolactin, TSH and GH in conscious ovariectomized rats. Life Sci. 23: 2225, 1978.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  412. Brown M., Rivier J., Vale W. Actions of bombesin, thyrotropin releasing factor, prostaglandin E2 and naloxone on thermoregulation in the rat. Life Sci. 20: 1681, 1977.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  413. Andersson K., Fuxe K., Eneroth P., Gustafsson J.-A., Agnati L.F. Mecamylamine induced blockade of nicotine induced inhibition of gonadotrophin and TSH secretion and of nicotine induced increases of catecholamine turnovers in the rat hypothalamus. Acta Physiol. Scand. Supp 479: 27, 1980.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  414. Ottlecz A., Snyder G.D., McCann S.M. Regulatory role of galanin in control of hypothalamic-anterior pituitary function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 9861, 1988.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  415. Hooi S.C., Maiter D.M., Martin J.B., Koenig J.I. Galaninergic mechanisms are involved in the regulation of corticotropin and thyrotropin secretion in the rat. Endocrinology 127: 2281, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  416. Ch’ng J.L.V., Christofides N.D., Anaud P., Gibson S.J., Allen Y.S., Su H.C., Tatemoto K., Morrison J.F.B., Polak J.M., Bloom S.R. Distribution of galanin immunoreactivity in the central nervous system and the responses of galanin-containing neuronal pathways to injury. Neuroscience 16: 343, 1985.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  417. Levin M.C., Sawchenko P.E., Howe P.R.C. Organization of galanin-immunoreactive inputs to the paraventricular nucleus with special reference to their relationship to catecholaminergic afférents. J. Comp. Neurol. 261: 562, 1987.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  418. Kordower J.H., Le H.K., Mufson E.J. Galanin immunoreactivity in the primate central nervous system. J. Comp. Neurol. 319: 479, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  419. Kyrkouli S.E., Stanley B.G., Leibowitz S.F. Differential effects of galanin and neuropeptide Y on extracellular norepinephrine levels in the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus of the rat: a microdialysis study. Life Sci. 51: 203, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  420. Hooi S.C., Koening J.I., Gabriel S.M., Maiter D., Martin J.B. Influence of thyroid hormone on the concentration of galanin in the rat brain. Neuroendocrinology 51: 351, 1990.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  421. Giardino L., Velardo A., Gallinelli A., Calzà L. Deficit of galanin-like immunostaining in the median eminence of adult hypothyroid rats. Neuroendocrinology 55: 237, 1992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  422. Liposits Zs., Valenca M.M., Lopez F.J., Merchenthaler I., Negro-Vilar A. Galanin neurons innervate anterior periventricular somatostatin cells and modulate somatostatin secretion from arcuate nucleus-median eminence fragments. 21 st Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, New Orleans, 1991, p. 434 (Abstract).

  423. Strieker E.M., Zigmond M.J. Brain monoamines, homeostasis, and adaptative behavior. In: Mountcastle V.B., Bloom F.E., Geiger S.R. (Eds.), Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Section I: Neurophysiology. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, Maryland, Vol. IV, 1986, p. 677.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This article is dedicated to our mentor, Seymour Reichlin M.D, Ph.D., |Professor of Medicine, Tufts University-New England Medical Center Hospitals, Boston, MA on occasion of his 69th birthday and in recognition of his pionering and invaluable contributions to the understanding of the neuroendocrine regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Toni, R., Lechan, R.M. Neuroendocrine regulation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in the tuberoinfundibular system. J Endocrinol Invest 16, 715–753 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03348918

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03348918

Key-words

Navigation