Skip to main content
Log in

Reasoning by analogy: Is it schema-mediated or case-based?

  • Published:
European Journal of Psychology of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

One of the “classical” ways of learning consists of studying examples of already solved problems. In two experiments, we analyzed the degree of abstraction of the knowledge used by ninth grade students to solve algebra problems after studying worked examples. The results showed that there are two processes underlying reasoning by analogy, one that uses abstract knowledge and another that involves case-based reasoning. Both experiments pointed out interindividual differences in the population under study: when given examples, some subjects seem to extract the structure of the solving process by comparing the worked examples, while others focus more on the specifics of each example. To these two processes correspond two levels of transfer: correctly solve problems that have the same structure as the examples, regardless of how similar they are, or be better at solving problems that resemble the examples the most. Experiment 2 used a dual-task paradigm to show that some subjects implement both processes, in which case the mental load is greater. This experiment also showed that both processes can lead to the long-term acquisition of the principles behind the examples.

Résumé

L’un des moyens “classiques” d’apprentissage consiste à étudier des exemples de problèmes déjà résolus. Deux expériences sont présentées, qui analysent le degré d’abstraction des connaissances utilisées par des éléves de troisième pour résoudre des problèmes de calcul algébrique, après l’étude de corrigés-types. Les résltats apportent des éléments montrant l’existence de deux processus de raisonnement par analogie: un processus passant par l’utilisation d’une connaissance abstraite et un processus de raisonnement à partir de cas. Les deux expériences mettent en évidence des différences inter-individuelles parmi la population étudiée: face aux exemples, certains sujets semblent en extraire la structure de résolution en comparant les corrigés, d’autres se centrent plus sur la spécificité de chaque exemple. A ces deux types d’activités correspondent deux gradients de transfert: réussir des problèmes partageant la même structure que les exemples quelle qu’en soit leur proximité, ou mieux réussir les problèmes les plus proches de ces exemples. L’expérience 2 montre à l’aide d’un paradigme de double tâche que certains sujets peuvent avoir recours au deux processus, la charge mentale requise étant alors plus importante. De plus cette expérience montre que l’une et l’autre processus peuvent permenttre d’acquérir à plus long terme les principes en jeu dans les exemples.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahn, W., Brewer, W.F., & Mooney, R.J. (1992). Scheme acquisition from a single example.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, 391–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, I.R., Kline, P.G., & Beasley, C.M. (1979). A General learning theory and its applications to schema abstraction. In G.H. Bower (Ed.),The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (vol. 13, pp. 277–318). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antonietti, A., & Gioletta, M.A. (1995). Individual differences in analogical problem solving.Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 611–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernardo, A.B.I. (1994). Problem-specific information and the development of problem-type schemata.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 379–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blessing, S.B., & Ross, B.H. (1996). Content effects in problem categorization and problem solving.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 792–810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carbonell, J.G. (1983). Learning by analogy: Formulating and generalizing plans from past experience. In R. Michalsky, J.G. Carbonell, & T.M. Mitchell (Eds.),Machine learning: An artificial intelligence approach (pp. 137–163). Palo Alto, CA: Tioga Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Catrambone, R., & Holyoak, K.J. (1989). Overcoming contextual limitation on problem-solving transfer.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1147–1156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M.T.H., Feltovich, P.J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices.Cognitive Science, 5, 121–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, M.T.H., Glaser, R.G., & Rees, E.T. (1982). Expertise in problem solving. In R. Sternberg (Ed.),Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence (vol. 1, pp. 7–76). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, D.D. (1992). Role of Analogical Reasoning in the Induction of Problem Categories.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 5, 1103–1124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 19, 450–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Didierjean, A., & Cauzinille-Marmèche, E. (1997). Eliciting self-explanations improves problem solving: What processes are involved?Current Psychology of Cognition, 16, 325–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elio, R., & Anderson, J.R. (1983). Effects of category generalization and instance similarity on schema abstraction.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 113, 541–555.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, K.W. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: the control and construction of hierarchies of skills.Psychological Review, 87, 477–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, K.W., & Farrar, M.J. (1987). Generalizations about generalization: How a theory of skills development explains both generality and specificity.International Journal of Psychology, 22, 643–677.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gentner, D. (1989). The mechanisms of analogical learning. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.),Similarity and analogical resoning (pp. 199–241). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M., & Holyoak, K.J. (1980). Analogical problem solving.Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M., & Holyoak, K.J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer.Cognitive Psychology, 15, 1–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gick, M.L., McGarry, S.J. (1992). Learning from mistakes: Inducing analogous solution failures to a source problem produces later successes in analogical transfer.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 623–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gobet, F., & Simon, H.A. (1996a). Templates in chess memory: A mechanism for recalling several boards.Cognitive Psychology, 31, 1–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gobet, F., & Simon, H.A. (1996b). Recall of random and distorted chess positions: Implications for the theory of expertise.Memory & Cognition, 24, 493–503.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldin-Meadow, S., Alibali, M.W., & Church, R.B. (1993). Transition in concept acquisition: Using the hand to read the mind.Psychological Review, 100, 279–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin-Meadow, S., Nusbaum, H., Garber, P., & Church, R.B. (1993). Transition in learning: Evidence for simultaneously activated hypotheses.Journal of experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 19, 92–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, K.J. (1990). Case-based planning: A framework for planning from experience.Cognitive Science, 14, 385–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heydenbluth, C., & Hesse, F.W. (1996). Impact of superficial similarity in the application phase of analogical problem solving.American Journal of Psychology, 109, 37–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holyoak, K.J., & Koh, K. (1987). Surface and structural similarity in analogical transfer.Memory and Cognition, 15, 332–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holyoak, K.J., & Thagard, P. (1989). Analogical mapping by constraint satisfaction.Cognitive science, 13, 295–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, H.M., & Seifert, C.M. (1992). The role of predictive features in retrieving analogical cases.Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 648–667.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieras, D.E., & Bovair, S. (1986). The acquisition of procedures from text: A production system analysis of transfer of training.Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 507–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolodner, J. (1993).Case-Based Reasoning. San Mateo: Morgan Kaufman Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lautrey, J. (1990). Esquisse d’un modèle pluraliste du développement cognitif. In M. Reuchlin, J. Lautrey, C. Marendaz, & T. Ohlman (Eds.),Cognition: L’individuel et l’universel (pp. 185–216). Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lautrey, J. (1993). A plea for a pluralistic approach of cognitive development. In R. Case & W. Edelstein (Eds.), The new structuralism in cognitive development: Theory and research in individual pathways.Contributions in Human development (vol. 23, pp. 277–318). Basel: Karger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michalski, R.S. (1983). Theory and methodology of inductive learning. In R.S. Michalsky, J.G. Carbonell, & T.M. Mitchell (Eds.),Machine learning: An artificial intelligence approach (pp. 88–134). Palo Alto, CA: Tioga Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novick, L.R., & Holyoak, K.J. (1991). Mathematical problem solving by analogy.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17, 398–415.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, M., Church, R.B., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1988). Transitional knowledge in the acquisition of concepts.Cognitive Development, 3, 359–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce, K.A., Crain, R.M., Gholson, B., Smither, D., & Rabinowitz, F.M. (1996). The source of children’s errors during nonisomorphic analogical transfer Script theory and structure mapping theory.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 62, 102–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riesbeck, C.K., & Schank, R.C. (1989).Inside Case-Based Reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, B.H. (1987). This is like that: The use of earlier problems and the separation of similarity effects.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 629–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, B.H. (1989). Distinguishing types of superficial similarities: Different effects on the access and use of earlier problems.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 456–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, B.H. (1996). Category representations and the effects of interacting with instances.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 1249–1265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, B.H., & Kennedy, P.T. (1990). Generalizing from the use of earlier examples in problem solving.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 42–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schank, R.C. (1982).Dynamic memory, a theory of reminding and learning in computers and people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Didierjean, A., Cauzinille-Marmèche, E. Reasoning by analogy: Is it schema-mediated or case-based?. Eur J Psychol Educ 13, 385–398 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03172952

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03172952

Key words

Navigation