Abstract
Natural disturbances have been traditionally defined in terms of major catastrophic events originating in the physical environment and, hence, have been regarded as exogenous agents of vegetation change. Problems with this view are: (1) there is a gradient from minor to major events rather than a uniquely definable set of major catastrophes for each kind of disturbance, and (2) some disturbances are initiated or promoted by the biotic component of the system. Floras are rich in disturbance-adapted species. Disturbances have probably exerted selective pressure in the evolution of species strategies.
Heathland cyclic successions and gap-phase dynamics in forests have been viewed as endogenous patterns in vegetation. When death in older individividuals imposes a rhythm on community reproduction, dynamics may indeed be the result of endogenous factors. However, documented cases of senescence in perennial plants are few and many cyclic successions and cases of gap-phase dynamics are initiated by physical factors. Forest dynamics range from those that are the result of individual tree senescence and fall, through those that are the result of blowdown of small groups of healthy trees, to those that are the result of large windstorms which level hectares of forest. The effect of wind ranges from simple pruning of dead plant parts to widespread damage of living trees. Wind speed is probably inversely proportional to occurrence frequency. Disturbances vary continuously. There is a gradient from those community dynamics that are initiated by endogenous factors to those initiated by exogenous factors. Evolution has mediated between species and environment; disturbances are often caused by physical factors but the occurrence and outplay of disturbances may be a function of the state of the community as well.
Natural disturbances in North American vegetation are: fire, windstorm, ice storm, ice push on shores, cryogenic soil movement, temperature fluctuation, precipitation variability, alluvial processes, coastal processes, dune movement, saltwater inundation, landslides, lava flows, karst processes, and biotic disturbances. Disturbances vary regionally and within one landscape as a function of topography and other site variables and are characterized by their frequency, predictability, and magnitude. The landscape level is important in assessing disturbance regime. Disturbances and cyclic successions belong to the same class of events—that of recurrent dynamics in vegetation structure—irrespective of cause. Dynamics may result from periodic, abrupt, and catastrophic environmental factors or they may result from an interaction of the changing susceptability of the community and some regular environmental factor. In any case, the dynamics result in heterogeneous landscapes; the species adapted to this heterogeneity are numerous, suggesting their long time importance.
The importance of disturbance regime as part of the environmental context of vegetation means that allogenic and autogenic models of vegetation are difficult to apply. Species composition can be seen to be a function of disturbance regime, as well as other environmental variables. Competitive replacement in succession occurs, then, only as disturbances cease to operate and can be viewed as allogenic adjustment to a new disturbance-free environment. Competitive divergence, separation of role, and competition avoidance may, in fact, underlie successional patterns traditionally viewed as the competitive replacement of inferior species by superiorly adapted climax species.
The importance of ongoing dynamics is also difficult to reconcile with the concept of climax, founded as it is on the idea of autogenesis within a stable physical environment. Climax composition is relative to disturbance regime. Climax is only arbitrarily distinguished from succession. Climax as an organizing paradigm in plant ecology has obscured the full temporal-spatial dimensions important in understanding the vegetated landscape and the evolution of species which contribute to the landscape patterns.
Whittaker’s coenocline concept is accepted with modifications: (1) natural disturbance gradients and Whittaker’s complex gradient are intimately related, (2) temporal variation in the community should be viewed as an added axis of community pattern, and (3) ongoing dynamics have important effects on specificity of species to site relations and the predictability of vegetation patterns. Recent work has suggested an r-K continuum in species strategy. In general, colonizing ability is seen as a trade-off against specialization. Frequent disruption of the community and the creation of open sites seems to result in mixes of species that are fleeting in time and do not repeat in space. Species in such mixes are often tolerant of wide environmental extremes but are compressed into early successional time if disturbance ceases. The composition of such communities is not predictable from site characteristics. Even communities with low disturbance frequency lack complete environmental determinism, and historical events are important in understanding present composition. Communities vary in level of environmental determinism and species differ in niche breadth and degree of site specificity. Management implications of vegetation dynamics are discussed.
Résumé
Les perturbations naturelles se définissent traditionnellement en fonction des événements catastrophiques majeurs dont l’origine se trouve dans l’environnement physique et que, de ce fait, l’on considère comme des agents exogènes des changements de la végétation. On peut opposer à ce point de vue les arguments suivants: (1) qu’il existe une gradation entre les événements mineurs et les événements majeurs au lieu d’un ensemble définissable de catastrophes majeurs pour chaque type de perturbation et (2) que quelques perturbations sont initiées ou promues par le composant biotique du système. Les flores sont riches en espèces adaptées aux perturbations. Les perturbations ont sans doute exercé une pression sélective sur l’évolution des stratégies que possèdent les espèces.
Les successions cyliques des landes et la dynamique du vide dans les forêts se sont considérées comme des configurations endogènes de végétation. Quand la mort des individus plus anciens impose un rythme sur la reproduction de la communauté, la dynamique peut bien être le résultat des facteurs endogènes. Cependant, il existe peu de cas documentés de la sénescence des plantes vivaces et bien des successions cyliques, et des cas de dynamique du vide sont initiés par des facteurs physiques. Les dynamiques des forêts s’étendent de celles qui résultent de la sénescence et de la chute d’un arbre individuel, à celles qui résultent de l’abattage par le vent de petits groupes d’arbres sains, jusqu’à celles qui résultent de grandes tempêtes qui nivellent des hectares de forêts. L’effet du vent va du simple élagage des parties mortes des plantes jusqu’aux dommages importants aux arbres vivants. Il est probable que la vitesse du vent est en rapport inverse avec sa fréquence. Les perturbations varient sans cesse. Il y a une gradation à partir des dynamiques de communauté initiées par les facteurs endogènes jusqu’à celles initiées par des facteurs exogènes. L’évolution a joué le rôle d’intermédiaire entre les espèces et l’environnement; les perturbations sont souvent dûes aux facteurs physiques mais il se peut bien que les perturbations aient lieu et se terminent en fonction également de l’état de la communauté.
Les perturbations naturelles dans la végétation de l’Amérique du Nord sont les suivantes: le feu, les tempêtes, les tempêtes de glace, la poussée de la glace sur les côtes, le mouvement cryogène des sols, la fluctuation des températures, la variabilité de la précipitation, les procédés alluviaux, les procédés côtiers, le mouvement des dunes, l’inondation par les eaux de mer, les éboulements de terre, le flux de lave, les procédés karstiques, et les perturbations biotiques. Ces perturbations varient suivant la région et à l’intérieur d’un même paysage en fonction de la topographie et d’autres inconstances du site et se caractérisent par leur fréquence, par leur prévisibilité et par leur grandeur. Le niveau du paysage a une importance pour l’évaluation du régime de la perturbation. Leur cause mise à part, les perturbations et les successions cycliques appartiennent à la même catégorie d’évenements—celle de la dynamique périodique dans la structure de la végétation. La dynamique peut être le résultat des facteurs périodiques, brusques et catastrophiques dans l’environnement ou d’une action réciproque entre le susceptibilité changeante de la communauté et un facteur régulier dans l’environnement. En tout cas, des paysages hétérogènes en résultent; les espèces adaptées à cette hétérogéné ité sont nombreuses, ce qui suggère leur signification à long terme.
L’importance du régime de perturbation comme partie du contexte environnant de la végétation signifie qu’il est difficile d’appliquer les modèles allogènes et autogènes de végétation. La composition de l’espèces peut se voir comme une fonction du régime des perturbations, ainsi que d’autres inconstants de l’environnement. Le remplacement compétitif dans la succession n’a donc lieu que lorsque les perturbations cessent d’exister et peut s’interpréter comme l’adaptation allogène à un nouveau environnement exempte de perturbations. La divergence compétitive, la séparation des rôles et le refus de la compétition peuvent, en fait, être à la base des configurations de succession considérées traditionnellement comme le remplacement compétitif d’une espèce inférieure par une espèce ortho-écologique adaptée de façon supérieure.
De plus, l’importance de la dynamique continue est difficile à concilier avec l’idée d’ortho-écologie qui est fondée sur l’idée de l’autogenèse dans un environnement physique stable. La composition ortho-écologique se rapporte au régime des perturbations. L’ortho-écologie ne se distingue qu’arbitrairement de la succession. L’ortho-écologie en tant que paradigme organisateur dans l’écologie des plantes a obscurci l’ensemble des dimensions temporelles et spatiales important à la compréhension du paysage végété et de l’évolution des espèces qui contribuent aux configurations du paysage.
Nous acceptons avec modifications le concept de cénocline (“coenocline”) de Whittaker: (1) les gradations des perturbations naturelles et la gradation complexe de Whittaker sont intimement liées, (2) la variation temporelle dans une communauté doit se voir comme une dimension de plus dans la configuration d’une communauté, et (3) la dynamique continue a des effets importants sur la spécificité des rapports espèces-site et sur la prévisibilité des configurations de végétation. Des travaux récents suggèrent un continuum r-K dans la stratégie des espèces. En général, la capacité de coloniser est interprétée comme un échange contre la spécialisation. La perturbation fréquente de la communauté et la création des sites ouverts paraît avoir comme résultat des mélanges d’espèces qui sont éphémères et qui ne se répètent pas dans l’espace. Les espèces dans de tels mélanges sont souvent très tolérantes de grandes extrèmes dans l’environnement mais se compriment tôt en temps de succession si la perturbation cesse. La composition de telles communautés ne peut pas se prédire suivant les caractéristiques du site. Même les communautés qui subissent une basse fréquence de perturbations manquent le plein déterminisme de l’environnement et les événements historiques sont importants à la compréhension de la composition actuelle. Les communautés varient quant au niveau de déterminisme de l’environnement et les espèces diffèrent quant à l’étendu de la niche et au dégré de spécificité au site. L’importance de la dynamique de végétation pour le management écologique est discutée.
Zusammenfassung
Natürliche Störungen werden traditionsgemäß im Sinne von großen, in der physikalischen Umwelt entstehenden katastrophalen Ereignissen definiert und daher als exogene Erreger von Vegetationsveränderungen angesehen. Problematisch an dieser Auffassung ist folgendes: (1) Es gibt keinen einmalig bestimmbaren Satz von Hauptkatastrophen für jede Störungsart, sondern einen Gradienten von kleinen bis zu großen Ereignissen, und (2) einige Störungen werden von der biotischen Komponente des Systems eingeleitet oder gefördert. Die Floren sind reich an störungsangepaßten Arten. Störungen haben wahrscheinlich einen Selektionsdruck bei der Evolution der Artenstrategien ausgeübt.
Die zyklische Sukzession im Heideland und die Dynamik der Bestandeslückenphase in Wäldern sind als endogene Vegetationsmuster betrachtet worden. Wenn das Absterben von älteren Individuen der Fortpflanzung der Pflanzengesellschaft einen Rhythmus auferlegt, dürfte die Dynamik allerdings das Resultat endogener Einflüsse sein. Die belegten Fälle von Altern in perennierenden Pflanzen sind jedoch wenige, und viele zyklische Sukzessionen und Fälle der Dynamik der Bestandeslückenphase werden durch physikalische Einflüsse hervorgerufen. Die Walddynamik umfaßt die Einflüsse, die sich aus den folgenden Situationen ergeben: Altern und Fall von einzelnen Bäumen, Windbruch von kleinen Gruppen gesunder Bäume und schließlich große Stürme, die Hektare von Wald ebene. Die Wirkung des Windes umfaßt sowohl das einfache Abbrechen von toten Pflanzenteilen als auch ausgedehnte Schäden an lebenden Bäumen. Die Windgeschwindigkeit ist der Auftrittshäufigkeit wohl verkehrt proportional. Störungen variieren kontinuierlich. Es existiert ein Gradient von der von endogenen Einflüssen eingeleiteten zu der von exogenen Einflüssen eingeleiteten Gesellschaftsdynamik. Die Evolution hat zwischen den Arten und der Umwelt vermittelt. Störungen werden oft durch physikalische Einflüsse verursacht, aber das Auftreten und das Abspielen von Störungen dürfte auch von dem Stand der Gesellschaft abhängen.
Natürliche Störungen in der Vegetation Nordamerikas sind Brand, Sturm, Eissturm, Eisschub an Ufern, Tieftemperatur-Bodenbewegung, Temperaturschwankung, Niederschlagsveränderlichkeit, alluviale und Küstenvorgänge, Dünenbewegung, Salzwasserpberflutung, Erdrutsche, Lavaströme, Karstvorgänge und biotische Störungen. Die Störungen variieren regional und innerhalb einer Landschaft in Abhängigkeit von der Oberflächengestaltung und anderen Standortsvariablen und werden durch ihre Häufigkeit, Vorausbestimmbarkeit und Größenordnung gekennzeichnet. Die Höhe des Geländes ist wichtig bei der Bewertung der Störungsbedingungen. Störungen und zyklische Sukzessionen gehören—unabhängig von der Ursache—der gleichen Ereignisklasse an: der wiederkehrenden Dynamik in der Vegetationsstruktur. Die Dynamik mag sich aus periodischen, abrupten und katastrophenartigen Umwelteinflüssen ergeben, oder aber sie mag aus der Wechselwirbung der sich ändernden Anfälligkeit der Gesellschaft und eines regelmäßigen Umweltfaktors resultieren. Auf jeden Fall führt die Dynamik zu heterogenen Landschaften. Die Arten, die sich dieser Heterogenität angepaßt haben, sind zahlreich, was auf ihre langwährende Bedeutung hinweist.
Die Wichtigkeit der Störungsbedingungen im Rahmen der Vegetationsumwelt deutet an, daß allogene und autogene Vegetationsmodelle schwer anzuwenden sind. Die Artenzusammensetzung kann in Abhängigkeit sowohl von Störungsbedingungen als auch von anderen Umweltvariablen betrachtet werden. Eine Konkurrenzersetzung in der Sukzession tritt dann nur auf, wenn die Störungen zu wirken aufhören, und kann als die allogenische Anpassung an eine neue störungsfreie Umwelt verstanden werden. Konkurrenz-Divergenz, Rollentrennung und Konkurrenzvermeidung dürften tatsächlich den Sukzessionsmustern zugrundeliegen, die traditionsgemäß als die Konkurrenzersetzung von unterlegenen Arten durch überlegen angepaßte Klimaxarten verstanden werden.
Es ist auch schwer, die Bedeutung der fortwährenden Dynamik mit dem Begriff des Klimaxes in Einklang zu bringen, da letzterer auf den Begriff der Autogenese innerhalb einer stabilen physikalischen Umwelt begründet ist. Die Klimaxzusammensetzung ist in Bezug auf die Störungsbedingungen relativ. Klimax unterscheidet sich von Sukzession nur arbiträr. Die Klimax als Organisationsparadigma in der Pflanzenökologie hat die vollen zeitlich-räumlichen Dimensionen unklar gemacht, die für ein Verständnis der Vegetationslandschaft und der Evolution der zu den Landschaftsmustern beitragenden Arten wichtig sind.
Der Begriff des “coenocline” von Whittaker wird mit einigen Abänderungen angenommen: (1) Natürliche Störungsgradiente und der komplexe Gradient von Whittaker sind eng miteinander verwandt, (2) eine zeitliche Variation in der Gesellschaft sollte als zusätzliche Achse der Gesellschaftsmuster betrachtet werden und (3) die fortwährende Dynamik hat einen wichtigen auf die Artenspezifität gegenüber den Standortsverhältnissen und auf die Vorausbestimmbarkeit von Vegetationsmustern. Neuere Arbeiten weisen auf ein r-K-Continuum in der Artenstrategie hin. Im allgemeinen nimmt man an, die Fähigkeit zur Koloniebildung existiere auf Kosten der Spezialisierung. Das häufige Auseinanderreißen der Gesellschaft und die Schaffung lichter Standorte resultiert anscheinend in Artmischungen, die kurzfristig auftreten und sich räumlich nicht wiederholen. Die Arten in solchen Mischungen tolerieren oft weite Umweltextreme, werden aber in eine frühe Sukzessionszeit zusammengedrängt, wenn die Störung sich legt. Die Zusammensetzung solcher Gesellschaften kann nicht auf Grund der Standortskenngrößen vorhergesagt werden. Sogar Gesellschaften mit niedriger Störungshäufigkeit fehlt es an einem vollkommenen Umweltdeterminismus, und historische Ereignisse sind für das Verständnis der gegenwärtigen Zusammensetzung wichtig. Gesellschaften unterscheiden sich in dem Grad des Umweltdeterminismus, und Arten unterscheiden sich in der Nischenbreite und in dem Grad der Standortsspezifität. Es wird die Einbeziehung der Vegetationsdynamik in die Forstwirtschaftsführung erörtert.
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White, P.S. Pattern, process, and natural disturbance in vegetation. Bot. Rev 45, 229–299 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860857
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860857