Abstract
Cobalt, a transition element, is an essential component of several enzymes and co-enzymes. It has been shown to affect growth and metabolism of plants, in different degrees, depending on the concentration and status of cobalt in rhizosphere and soil. Cobalt interacts with other elements to form complexes. The cytotoxic and phytotoxic activities of cobalt and its compounds depend on the physico-chemical properties of these complexes, including their electronic structure, ion parameters (charge-size relations) and coordination. Thus, the competitive absorption and mutual activation of associated metals influence the action of cobalt on various phytochemical reactions.
The distribution of cobalt in plants is entirely species-dependent. The uptake is controlled by different mechanisms in different species. Biosorption involves ion-exchange mechanism in algae, but in fungi both metabolism-independent and -dependent processes are operative. Physical conditions like salinity, temperature, pH of the medium, and presence of other metals influence the process of uptake and accumulation in algae, fungi, and mosses.
Toxic concentrations inhibit active ion transport. In higher plants, absorption of Co2+ by roots involves active transport. Transport through the cortical cells is operated by both passive diffusion and active process. In the xylem, the metal is mainly transported by the transpirational flow. Distribution through the sieve tubes is acropetal by complexing with organic compounds. The lower mobility of Co2+ in plants restricts its transport to leaves from stems.
Cobalt is not found at the active site of any respiratory chain enzymes. Two sites of action of Co2+ are found in mitochondrial respiration since it induces different responses toward different substrates like α-keto glutarate and succinate. In lower organisms, Co2+ inhibits tetraphyrrole biosynthesis, but in higher plants it probably participates in chlorophyll b formation. Exogenously added metal causes morphological damage in plastids and changes in the chlorophyll contents. It also inhibits starch grain differentiation and alters the structure and number of chloroplasts per unit area of leaf. The role of cobalt in photosynthesis is controversial. Its toxic effect takes place by inhibition of PS2 activity and hence Hill reaction. It inhibits either the reaction centre or component of PS2 acceptor by modifying secondary quinone electron acceptor Qb site. Co2+ reduces the export of photoassimilates and dark fixation of CO2. In C4 and CAM plants, it hinders fixation of CO2 by inhibiting the activity of enzymes involved.
Cobalt acts as a preprophase poison and thus retards the process of karyokinesis and cytokinesis. The action of cobalt on plant cells is mainly turbagenic. Cobalt compounds act on the mitotic spindle, leading to the formation of chromatin bridges, fragmentation, and sticky bridges at anaphase and binucleate cells. High concentrations of cobalt hamper RNA synthesis, and decrease the amounts of the DNA and RNA probably by modifying the activity of a large number of endo- and exonucleases.
The mutagenic action of cobalt salts results in mitochondrial respiratory deficiency in yeasts. In cytokinesis-deficient mutant of Chlamydomonas it increases the amount of sulfhydryl compounds. Cobalt has been shown to alter the sex of plants like Cannabis sativa, Lemna acquinoclatis, and melon cultivars. It decreases the photoreversible absorbance of phytochrome in pea epicotyl and interferes with heme biosynthesis in fungi.
Low concentration of Co2+ in medium stimulates growth from simple algae to complex higher plants. Relatively higher concentrations are toxic. A similar relationship is seen with crop yield when the metal is used in the form of fertilizer, pre-seeding, and pre-sowing chemicals.
Toxic effect of cobalt on morphology include leaf fall, inhibition of greening, discolored veins, premature leaf closure, and reduced shoot weight.
Being a component of vitamin B12 and cobamide coenzyme, Co2+ helps in the fixation of molecular nitrogen in root nodules of leguminous plants. But in cyanobacteria, CoCl2 inhibits the formation of heterocyst, ammonia uptake, and nitrate reductase activity.
The interaction of cobalt with other metals mainly depends on the concentration of the metals used. For example, high levels of Co2+ induce iron deficiency in plants and suppress uptake of Cd by roots. It also interacts synergistically with Zn, Cr, and Sn. Ni overcomes the inhibitory effect of cobalt on protonemal growth of moss, thus indicating an antagonistic relationship.
The beneficial effects of cobalt include retardation of senescence of leaf, increase in drought resistance in seeds, regulation of alkaloid accumulation in medicinal plants, and inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis.
In lower plants, cobalt tolerance involves a cotolerance mechanism. The mechanism of resistance to toxic concentration of cobalt may be due to intracellular detoxification rather than defective transport. In higher plants, only a few advanced copper-tolerant families showed cotolerance to Co2+. Tolerance toward Co2+ may sometimes determine the taxonomic shifting of several members of Nyssaceae. Due to the high cobalt content in serpentine soil, essential element uptake by plants is reduced, a phenomenon known as “serpentine problem,” for New Caledonian families like Flacourtiaceae. Large amounts of calcium in soil may compensate for the toxic effects of heavy metals in adaptable genera grown in this type of soil.
The biomagnification of potentially toxic elements, such as cobalt from coal ash or water into food webs, needs additional study for effective biological filtering.
Résumé
Le cobalt, élément de transition, est un composant essentiel de plusieurs enzymes et co-enzymes. Il est prouvé qu’il peut modifier la croissance et le métabolisme des végétaux, à des degrés variables, selon la concentration et la condition du cobalt dans la rhizosphère et le sol. Le cobalt réagit sur d’autres éléments pour former d’autres complexes. Les activités cytotoxique et phytotoxique du cobalt et de ses composés dépendent des propriétés physico-chimiques de ces complexes, y compris de leur strucuture électronique, de leurs paramètres d’ion (relations charge-taille) et de leur coordination. Ainsi, l’absorption compétitrice et l’activation mutuelle des métaux associés influencent l’action du cobalt dans diverses réactions phytochimiques.
La répartition du cobalt dans les végétaux depend entièrement de l’espèce. L’absorption est contrôlée par différents mécanismes pour différentes espèces. L’absorption biologique exige un échange d’ions les algues mais chez les champignons l’on observe des procédés indépendants du métabolisme aussi bien que des procédés dépendants. Des conditions physiques telles que la salinité, la température, le Ph du milieu, et la présence d’autres métaux influencent les procédés d’absorption et d’accumulation dans les algues, chez les champignons, et les mousses.
Des concentrations toxiques empêchent le transport actif des ions. Chez les végétaux supérieurs, l’absorption du Co2+ par les racines exige un transport actif. Le transport à travers les cellules corticales se fait à la fois par und diffusion passive et par un procédé actif. Dans le xylème, le métal est transporté surtout par le flux d’exsudation. La répartition à travers les vaisseaux criblés est acropète par la formation de complexes avec des composés organiques. La faible mobilité du Co2+ chez les végétaux restreint sa circulation des tiges aux feuilles. On ne trouve pas de cobalt au siège actif de n’importe quelle chaine respiratoire d’enzymes. L’on trouve deux sièges de réaction du Co2+ dans la respiration mitochondriaque puisqu’il provoque des réactions différentas sur différents substrats tels que α-keto glutarate et succinate.
Dans les organismes inférieurs, le Co2+ empêche la biosynthèse tetraphyrolle mais dans les végétaux supérieurs il participe probablement à la formation de la chlorophylle b. Le métal ajouté de façon exogène provoque des destructions morphologiques dans les plastities (ou chromatophore) et change leur teneur en chlorphylle. Il empêche également la différentiation des grains d’amidon et modifie la structure et le nombre des chloroplastes par unité de surface de la feuille. Le rôle du cobalt dans la photosynthèse est controversable. Son action toxique se produit par inhibition de l’activité de PS2 et donc par réaction de Hill. Soit il inhibe le siège de la réaction ou composé de l’accepteur PS2 en modifiant le siège de l’électron accepteur Qb de la quinone secondaire. Le Co2+ réduit le transport des photoassimilés et la fixation sombre du CO2. Chez les plantes C4 et CAM, il gêne la fixation du CO2 en inhibant l’activité des enzymes en cause.
Le cobalt agit en tant que poison de préprophase et retarde ainsi le processus de caryocinèse et de cytocinèss. L’action du cobalt sur les cellules végétales est surtout turbagénique. Les composés du cobalt agissent sur l’axe mitosique, abountissant à la formation de ponts de chromatine, à la fragmentation, et à des ponts s’agglutinant à l’anaphase ainsi qu’à des cellules binucléaires. De fortes concentrations de cobalt empêchentla synthèse RNA et diminuent les quantités de DNA et RNA probablement en modifiant l’activité d’un grand nombre d’endo et d’exo nucléases.
L’action mutagéne des sels de cobalt provoque un trouble de la respiration mitochondriaques chez les levures. Dans la cytocinèse, mutant incomplet de la Chlamydomonas, il augmente le nombre de composés sulfhydriliques. Il a été démontré que le cobalt peut changer le sexe de plantes telles que Cannabis sativa, Lemma acquinoclatis, et de cultures de melons. Il relentit l’absorption photoréversible du phytochrome dans l’épicotyle du pois et gêne la biosynthese heme des champignons.
De faibles concentrations de Co2+ dans le milieu stimulent l’évolution de simples algues en végétaux supérieurs complexes. Des concentrations fortement supérieures sont toxiques. Une relation identique peut être établie pour le rendement d’une culture quand le métal est utilisé sous forme d’engrais, de produits chimiques avant ensemencement et semences.
Les effets toxiques du cobalt sur la morphologie incluent: chute des feuilles, inhibition du verdissage, nervures décolorées, fermeture prematurée de la feuille, et poids réduit de la pousse. Puisqu’il est un composé de la vitamine B12 et du coenzyme cobamide le Co2+ facilite la fixation du nitrogène moléculaire dans les nodosités radiculaires des légumineuses. Mais dans la cyanobacterie, CoCl2 inhibe la formation d’hétérocyste, la fixation de l’ammoniaque, et l’activité de la réductase du nitrate.
L’interaction du cobalt avec d’autres métaux dépend surtout de la concentration des métaux utilisés. Par exemple, de fortes doses de Co2+ vont provoquer une déficience en fer chez les végétaux et supprimer la fixation de Cd par les racines. Il agit aussi synergistement avec Zn, Cr, et Sn. Ni maitrise l’effect d’inhibition du cobalt sur la croissance protonémale des mousses, prouvant ainsi une relation antagonists.
Les effets bienfaisants du cobalt incluent: retardement du vieillissement de la feuille, augmentation de la résistance à la sécheresse pour les semences, régulation de l’accumulation alkaloide chez les plantes médicinales, et inhibition de la biosynthèse de l’éthylene.
Chez les végétaux inférieurs, la tolérance au cobalt implique un mécanisme de cotolérance. Le mécanisme de resistance à une concentration toxique peut être dû à un phénomène de desintoxication intracellulaire plutôt qu’à un transport défectueux. Chez les végétaux supérieurs, seules quelques familles avancées et tolérant le cuivre ont montré une cotolérance pour Co2+. Une tolérance au Co2+ peut parfois déterminer le changement taxinomique de plusieurs membres de Nyssaceae. A cause de al haute teneur en cobalt d’un sol constitué de serpentine, la fixation par les végétaux d’éléments essentiels est réduite, c’est un phénomène connu sous le nom de “problème de la serpentine” pour des familles de plantes de Nouvelle Calédonie telles que les Flacourtiaceae. De grandes quantités de calcium dans le sol peuvent contrebalancer les effets toxiques des métaux lourds dans des espèces adaptables poussant sur ce type de sol.
La biomagnification d’éléments potentiellement toxiques tel que le cobalt provenant de cendres de charbon ou l’eau dans les tissus nutritifs, nécessite une étude approfondie pour un épurage biologique effectif.
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Palit, S., Sharma, A. & Talukder, G. Effects of cobalt on plants. Bot. Rev 60, 149–181 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02856575
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02856575
Keywords
- Cobalt
- Serpentine
- Botanical Review
- Nitrate Reductase Activity
- Cobalt Content