Skip to main content
Log in

How numbers are shown

A Review of Research on the Presentation of Quantitative Data in Texts

  • Articles
  • Published:
AV communication review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

References

  • Allcock, H. J., & Jones, J. R.The nomogram. New York: Pitman, 1932.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beeby, A. W., & Taylor, H. P. J. How well can we use graphs?Communicator of Scientific and Technical Information, 1973,17, 7–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertin, J.Semiologie graphique: Les diagrammes, les reseaux, les cartes. Paris: Mouton Gauthier Villars, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brinton, W. C.Graphic methods of presenting facts. New York: Engineering Magazine, 1916.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cajori, F.A history of mathematics. New York: Macmillan, 1894.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cajori, F.A history of mathematical notations (2 vols.). LaSalle, I11.: Open Court, 1928.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, P.How to chart data. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, L. F.The relative effectiveness of presenting numerical data by the use of tables and graphs (Memorandum Report No. TSEAA 694-1). HQ Air Material Command, Engineering Division, April 17, 1946. (a)

  • Carter, L. F.A study of the best design of tables and graphs for presenting numerical data (Memorandum Report No. TSEAA 694-1C). Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Aero Medical Laboratory Engineering Division, 1946. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, L. F. An experiment on the design of tables and graphs used for presenting numerical data.Journal of Applied Psychology, 1947,31, 640–650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapanis, A.Research techniques in human engineering. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1959.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapanis, A.Man-machine engineering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapanis, A., Garner, W. R., & Morgan, C. T.Applied experimental psychology: Human factors in engineering design. New York: Wiley, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaprakani, T. K., & Ehrenberg, A. S. C.Numerical information processing. London: London Business School, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, C. H.A theory of data. New York: Wiley, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, P. V.Visual properties of uniform grey-tone point symbols and line symbols used in graduated series on maps. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1969.

  • Crawford, P. V. Perception of grey-tone symbols.Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1971,61, 721–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croxton, F. E. Further studies in the graphic use of circles and bars.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1927,22, 36–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croxton, F. E., & Stein, H. Graphic comparison by bars, squares, circles and cubes.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1932,27, 54–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croxton, F. E., & Stryker, R. E. Bar charts versus circle diagrams.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1927,22, 473–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuff, D. J. Colour on temperature maps.Cartographic Journal, 1973,10, 17–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Culbertson, H. M., Flores, T., Powers, R., & Sarbaugh, L. E.Using graphs more effectively for economic information (Bulletin 29). University of Wisconsin: Department of Agricultural Journalism, 1959.

  • Culbertson, H. M., & Powers, R. D. A study of graph comprehension difficulties.AV Communication Review, 1959,7, 97–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cureton, E. E., & Dunlap, J. W. A nomograph for estimating the reliability of a test in one range of talent when its reliability is known in another range.Journal of Educational Psychology, 1929,20, 537–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dantzig, T.Number: The language of science. New York: Macmillan, 1939.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D. S.Nomography and empirical equations (2nd ed.). New York: Reinhold, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Ocagne, M.Traite de nomographie. Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1899.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglass, R. D., & Adams, D. P.Elements of nomography. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1947.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eells, W. C. The relative merits of circles and bars for representing component parts.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1926,22, 119–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenberg, A. S. C.Data reduction. New York: Wiley, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenberg, A. S. C. Rudiments of numeracy.Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,in press,140 (Series A).

  • Ekman, G., & Junge, K. Psychophysical relations in visual perception of lengths, area and volume.Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 1961,2, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, G., Lindman, R., & William-Olsson, W. A psychological study of cartographic symbols.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1961,13, 355–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feliciano, G. D., Powers, R. D., and Kearl, B. E.Text table or graphs for communicating statistical information (Bulletin 32). University of Wisconsin: Department of Agricultural Journalism, 1962.

  • Feliciano, G. D., Powers, R. D., & Kearl, B. E. The presentation of statistical information.AV Communication Review, 1963,22, 32–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flannery, J.J. The graduated circle: A description, analysis and evaluation of a quantitative map symbol. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1956.

  • Flannery, J. J. The relative effectiveness of some common graduated point symbols in the presentation of quantitative data.Canadian Cartographer, 1971,8, 96–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, L. R.Alignment charts. Notre Dame, Ind.: Notre Dame Press, 1944.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funkhouser, H. G. Historical development of the graphical representation of statistical data.Osiris, 1937,3, 269–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Great Britain Prime Minister’s Office.Statistics relating to the war effort of the United Kingdom (HMSO Command Paper 6564). London: Prime Minister’s Office, 1944.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, H. D. How to construct a nomogram.Journal of Educational Psychology, 1932,23, 561–577.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, J., & Young, M. On the typing of tables.Applied Ergonomics, 1975,6, 39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogben, L.From cave painting to comic strip. London: Max Parrish, 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogben, L.Mathematics in the making. London: Macdonald, 1960.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huff, D.How to lie with statistics. London: Gollancz, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenks, C. F., & Knos, D. S. The use of shading patterns in graded series.Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1961,51, 316–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • John, V. B.Understanding phase diagrams. New York: Macmillan, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karsten, K. G.Charts and graphs: An introduction to graphic methods in the control and analysis of statistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1923.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, M. G., & Buckland, W. R.A dictionary of statistical terms. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lalanne, L. L. C.Anamorphose logarithmique. Paris: 1842.

  • Levens, A. S.Nomography. New York: Wiley, 1948.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz, K. Z.Studies in animal and human behavior. London: Methuen, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loucks, R. B. An experimental evaluation of the interpretability of various types of aircraft altitude indicators. In P. M. Fitts (Ed.),Psychological research on equipment design. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1947.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald-Ross, M.Graphics in text. Review of Research in Education, in press.

  • Macdonald-Ross, M., & Smith, E.Graphics in text: A bibliography. Great Britain: Open University, Institute of Educational Technology, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald-Ross, M., & Waller, R.Open University texts: Criticisms and alternatives. Great Britain: Open University, Institute of Educational Technology, 1975. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald-Ross, M., & Waller, R. Criticism, alternatives and tests: A conceptual framework for improving typography.Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 1975,12, 75–83. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald-Ross, M., & Waller, R. The transformer.Penrose Annual, 1976,69, 141–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacPherson, I. S., & Jones, B. R.The interpretation of graphs in physics. London: Hutchinson, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, C. O.The grade placement of curriculum materials in the social studies. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College Press, 1926.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meihoefer, H. J. The utility of the circle as an effective cartographic symbol.Canadian Cartographer, 1969,6, 105–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meihoefer, H. J. The visual perception of the circle in thematic maps: Experimental results.Canadian Cartographer, 1973,10, 63–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merriam, D. F., &Sneath, P. H. A. Quantitative comparison of contourmaps. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1966,71, 1105–1115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midonick, H.The treasury of mathematics. (2 Vols.). London: Penguin, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Modley, R.How to use pictorial statistics. New York: Harper, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Modley, R., & Lowenstein, D.Pictographs and graphs: How to make and use them. New York: Harper, 1952.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffat, D.Charts and nomographs for electronic technicians and engineers. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monkhouse, F. J., & Wilkinson, H. R.Maps and diagrams: Their compilation and construction (3rd rev. ed.). London: Methuen, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moroney, M. J.Facts from figures. London: Penguin, 1951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, M.Living with one another. Macdonald, 1965.

  • Neurath, M.Otto Neurath and isotype. (Japan): Graphic Design, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, M. Isotype.Instructional science, 1974,3, 127–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O. Gesellschafts-und Wirtschaftmuseum in Wien. Wien: Osterreichische Geneinde-Zeitung 2 Jahrung no. 16, 1925. Translated and reprinted in M. Neurath & R. S. Cohen (Eds.),Empiricism and sociology. Boston: Reidel, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O.Die bunte welt: Mengenbilder fur die fugend. Wien: Artur Wolf, 1929.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O.Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft. Leipzig: Bibliographisches Institut, 1930.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O.Technik und menscheit. Wien-Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag fur Jugend und Volk, 1932.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O.International picture language. London: Kegan Paul, 1936.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O.Basic by isotype. London: Kegan Paul, 1937. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O. Visual representation of architectural problems.Architectural Record, July 1937, 57–61. (b)

  • Neurath, O. The human approach to visual education.Health Education Journal, 1944,2, 61–66. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O. Visual aids and arguing.New Era, 1944,25, 51–61. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Neurath, O., & Neurath, M.Modern man in the making. New York: Knopf, 1939.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, J. M.The effects of class interval systems on the visual correlation of chloropleth maps. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1970.

  • Olson, J. M. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication.Cartographic Journal, 1975,22, 94–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, L. V., & Schramm, W. How accurately are different kinds of graphs read?AV Communication Review, 1955,2, 178–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polanyi, M.Personal knowledge. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polanyi, M.The tacit dimension. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, J. R., Martuza, V. R., & Crouse, J. H. Construct validity of test items measuring acquisition of information from line graphs.Journal of Educational Psychology, 1974,66, 152–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, A. H., & Sale, R. D.Elements of cartography (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rulon, P. J. A graph for estimating reliability in one range knowing it in another.Journal of Educational Psychology, 1930,21, 140–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schilling, F.Uber die Nomographie von M. d’Ocagne. Leipzig: Teubner, 1900.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, H. G. An evaluation of formats for graphic trend displays.Human Factors, 1961,3, 99–107. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, H. G. An evaluation of methods for presentation of graphic multiple trends.Human Factors, 1961,3, 108–119. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, H.The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. E.History of mathematics (2 vols.). New York: Dover, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. E., & Ginsburg, J.Numbers and numerals. New York: Columbia University, Teachers College Press, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. E., & Karpinski, L. C.The Hindu-Arabic numerals. Boston: Ginn, 1911.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgerson, W. S.Theory and methods of scaling. New York: Wiley, 1958.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tukey, J. W.Exploratory data analysis. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D. Learning from graphical material.British Journal of Psychology, 1946,36, 145–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D. The visual presentation of factual material.British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1950,20, 174–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D. Learning and understanding.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1951,3, 19–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D. The use and value of graphical material in presenting quantitative data.Occupational Psychology, 1952,26, 22–34. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D. The use and value of graphical materials with a written text.Occupational Psychology, 1952,26, 96–100. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D. Presenting information in diagrams.AV Communication Review, 1953,1, 147–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, M. D.The psychology of perception. London: Penguin, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Huhn. Further studies in graphic use of circles and bars: A discussion of the Eells experiment.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1927,22, 31–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Washburne, J. N. An experimental study of various graphic, tabular and textual methods of presenting quantitative material. Part I:Journal of Educational Psychology, 1927,18, 361–376. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Washburne, J. N. An experimental study of various graphic, tabular and textual methods of presenting quantitative material. Part II: Numerals and written numbers.Journal of Educational Psychology, 1927,18, 465–476. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Weintraub, S. What research says to the reading teacher: Reading graphs, charts and diagrams.Reading Teacher, 1967,20, 345–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. L.Statistical symbols for maps: Their design and relative values (Contract NR 008-006 Nonr 609 (03)). Washington, D.C.: Office of Naval Research, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. Using tabulated information.Ergonomics, 1968,11, 331–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. Explicit and implicit tabulation formats.Ergonomics, 1972,15, 175–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. Understanding tabular displays. In Ergonomics Research Society & The Society for Industrial Artists and Designers,The visual presentation of technical data. Great Britain: University of Reading Typography Unit, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. Presenting technical information: A survey of research findings.Instructional Science, 1977,6, 93–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. & Fox K. Presenting information in tables.Applied Ergonomics, 1970,1, 234–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrightstone, J. W. Conventional versus pictorial graphs.Progressive Education, 1936,13, 460–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeisel, H.Say it with figures. New York: Harper, 1947.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This is the sixth ERIC/AVCR Annual Review Paper, preparation of which was supported by the ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) Clearinghouse on Information Resources, Syracuse University. The material in this article was prepared pursuant to a contract with the National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professional and technical matters. Points of view or opinions do not necessarily represent the official view or opinion of the NIE.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Macdonald-Ross, M. How numbers are shown. AVCR 25, 359–409 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02769746

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02769746

Keywords

Navigation