Skip to main content

Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. A review of the literature

European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry volume 3, pages 138–158 (1994)Cite this article

Abstract

The literature on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents is reviewed. On the basis of the epidemiological data it is concluded that OCD is far more common among children and adolescents than was previously believed. However, good epidemiological studies in other parts of the world than the US are still needed. Follow-up studies of the course of OCD with a childhood onset are still very few in number. Recent studies show that OCD is a disabling disorder for many of the patients, also in adult life, but that a considerable proportion of the patients seems to “recover” from their obsessions and compulsions in adulthood. There are indications that treatment response in childhood, parental psychopathology, and severity of the OCD migh predict the outcome. The biological aspects of OCD are reviewed. The serotonin transmitter system seems to be involved in the pathogenesis of adult as well as childhood OCD. Additionally, most studies demonstrate a high degree of neuropsychological and neurological deficits in children with OCD. Comorbidity in childhood, and the concept of OCD spectrum disorders are presented. Childhood OCD seems to be associated with depression, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, and empathy disorder, whereas there seems to be no convincing relation between OCD and schizophrenia.

Résumé

La littérature concernant les troubles obsessifs compulsifs (TOC) chez les enfants et les adolescents est passée en revue. Sur la base de données épidémiologiques, il est conclu que les TOC sont plus communs chez les enfants et les adolescents qu’on le pensait précédemment. Cependant de bonnes études épidémiologiques en dehors des USA sont encore nécessaires. Les études sur le devenir des TOC avec début dans l’enfance sont encore très peu nombreuses. Des études récentes montrent que les TOC sont un trouble handicapant pour beaucoup de ces patients, également dans leur vie adulte, mais qu’une proportion considérable de ces patients semblent “guérir” de leurs obsessions et compulsions à l’âge adulte. Il existe des incides que la réponse au traitement dans l’enfance, la psychopathologie parentale, et la sévérité des TOC puissent prédire le devenir. Le aspects biologiques des TOC sont passer en revue. Le système transmetteur sérotinergique semble impliqué dans la pathogénèse des TOC de l’adulte comme de l’enfant. De plus la plupart des études montre un degré élevé de déficits non neuropsychologiques et neurologiques chez les enfants avec TOC. La comorbidité dans l’enfance et le concept du spectre de TOC sont présentés. Les TOC de l’enfance semblent associés avec la dépression, les troubles du comportement alimentaire, les troubles anxieux, les troubles de l’empathie, tandis qu’il ne semble pas exister de relation pubertaire entre TOC et schizophrénie.

Zusammenfassung

Die Literatur zu Zwangsstörungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter wird zusammengefaßt. Anhand der epidemiologischen Daten wird gefolgert, daß Zwangsstörungen weitaus häufiger bei Kindern und Jugendlichen sind, als früher angenommen wurde. Jedoch werden weiterhin gute epidemiologische Studien außerhalb der Vereinigten Staaten benötigt. Es existieren bislang nur wenige Katamnesestudien zu Zwangsstörungen mit Beginn im Kindesalter. Neuere Untersuchungen zeigen, daß Zwangsstörungen mit einer schweren Beeinträchtigung für die Patienten—auch im Erwachsenenalter—einhergehen. Ein beträchtlicher Teil der Patienten scheint sich jedoch von ihren Zwangsgedanken und Zwangshandlungen im Erwachsenenalter zu “erholen”. Es gibt Hinweise dafür, daß das Ansprechen auf die Behandlung im Kindesalter, die elterliche Psychopathologie und der Schweregrad der Zwangsstörung von prognostischer Bedeutung sind. Biologische Aspekte zu Zwangsstörungen werden übersichtlich dargestellt. Das Serotonin-Transmittersystem scheint in der Pathogenese von Zwangsstörungen sowohl bei Erwachsenen als auch bei Kindern beteiligt zu sein. Zusätzlich weisen viele Studien einen hohen Grad an neuropsychologischen und neurologischen Auffälligkeiten bei Kindern mit Zwangsstörungen nach. Die Komorbidität und das Spektrumskonzept zu Zwangsstörungen werden vorgestellt. Zwangsstörungen im Kindesalter scheinen mit Depressionen, Eßstörungen, Angststörungen und Empathiestörungen assoziiert zu sein. Es gibt jedoch keine überzeugende Beziehung zwischen Zwangsstörungen und Schizophrenie.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

43,34 €

Price includes VAT (Finland)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Adams, P. (1973).Obsessive Children. New York: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akthar, S., Wig, N.N., Varma, V.K., Pershad, D. & Verma, S.K. (1978). Socio-cultural and clinical determinants of symptomatology in obsessional neurosis.International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 24, 157–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allsop, M. & Verduyn, C. (1990). Adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A case note review of consecutive patients referred to a provincial regional adolescent psychiatry unit.Journal of Adolescence, 13, 157–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1980).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Third edition. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1987).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. (Third-revised). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apter, A., Bernhout, E. & Tyano, S. (1984). Severe obsessive compulsive disorder in adolescence: A report of eight cases.Journal of Adolescence, 7, 349–358.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, L., Jenike, M.A., Ricciardi, J.N., Holland, A.D., Seymour, R.J., Minichiello, W.E. & Buttolph, M.L. (1990). Standardized assessment of personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 826–830.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ballerini, A & Stanghellini, G. (1989). Phenomenological questions about obsession and delusion.Psycholopathology, 22, 315–319.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1989). Do autistic children have obsessions and compulsions?British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 193–200.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr, L., Goodman, W.K., Price, L.H., McDougle, C.J. & Charney, D.S. (1992). The serotonin hypothesis of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Implications of pharmacologic challenge studies.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53, 17–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Behar, D., Rapoport, J.L., Berg, C.J., Denckla, M.B., Mann, L., Cox, C., Fedio, P., Zahn, T. & Wolfman, M.G. (1984). Computerized tomography and neuropsychological test measures in adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 363–369.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, C.J., Rapoport, J.L. & Flament, M.F. (1986). The Leyton Obsessional Inventory-Child Version.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 84–91.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, C.J., Whitaker, A., Davies, M., Flament, M.F. & Rapoport, J.L. (1988). The Survey Form of the Leyton Obsessional Inventory-Child Version: Norms from an epidemiological study.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 759–763.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berg, C.J., Rapoport, J.L., Whitaker, A., Davies, M., Leonard, H.L., Swedo, S.E., Braiman, S. & Lenane, M. (1989). Childhood obsessive compulsive disorder: A two-year prospective follow-up study of a community sample.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 528–533.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Black, A. (1974). The natural history of obsessional neurosis. In H.R. Beech (Ed.)Obsessional States (pp. 19–54). London: Methuen and Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, D. W., Russell, N., Goldstein, R.B & Blum, N. (1992). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder.Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 362–368.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Black, D.W., Yates, W.R., Noyes, R., Pfohl, B. & Kelley, M. (1989). DSM-III personality disorder in obsessive-compulsive study volunteers: A controlled study.Journal of Personality Disorders, 3, 58–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bland, R.C., Orn, H. & Newman, S.C. (1988). Life-time prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Edmonton.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 77, (suppl. 338), 24–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, K.B., Ananth, J., Philpott, L., Kaur, A. & Djenderedjian, A. (1991). Neuropsychological characteristics of nondepressed adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder.Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 4, 96–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capstick, N. & Seldrup, J. (1977). Obsessional states. A study in the relationship between abnormalities occurring at the time of birth and the subsequent development of obsessional symptoms.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 56, 247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carey, G. & Gottesman, I.I. (1981). Twin and family studies of anxiety, phobic and obsessive disorders. In D.F. Klein, and J. Rabkin, (Eds.)Anxiety: New Research and Changing Concepts. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciesielski, K.T., Beech, H.R. & Gordon, P.K. (1981). Some electrophysiological observations in obsessional states.British Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 479–484.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.A. & Bolton, D. (1985). Obsessive compulsive adolescents and their parents: A psychometric study.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 267–276.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.A., Sugrim, I. & Bolton, D. (1982). Primary obsessional slowness: A nursing programme with a 13-year old male adolescent.Behavioural Research Therapy, 20, 289–292.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen D.J., Leckman, J.F. & Shaywitz, B.A. (1984). Tourette’s syndrome: Assessment and treatment. In D. Shaffer, A.A. Ehrehardt, and L. Greenhill (Eds.)Diagnosis and Treatment in Pediatric Psychiatry. New York: Macmillan Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J. (1970). The Leyton Obsessional Inventory.Psychological Medicine, 1, 48–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J. & Kelleher, M.Y. (1973). The Leyton Obsessional Inventory: A principal components analysis on normal subjects.Psychological Medicine, 3, 204–208.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crisp, A.H., Lacey, J.H. & Crutchfiels, M. (1987). Clomipramine and “drive” in people with anorexia nervosa.British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 355–358.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dally, P. (1969).Anorexia Nervosa. Philadelphia: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M.B. (1989). Neurological examination. In J.L. Rapoport (Ed.)Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescents (pp. 107–118). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Despert, J.L. (1955). Differential diagnosis between obsessive-compulsive neurosis and schizophrenia in children. In P.H. Hoch & J. Zubin (Eds.)Psychopathology of Childhood. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esser, G., Schmidt, M.H. & Woerner, W. (1990). Epidemiology and course of psychiatric disorders in school-age children. Results of a longitudinal study.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 243–263.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flament, M.F. (1993).The neurobiology of childhood OCD. Presented at the First International OCD Conference, Italy.

  • Flament, M.F., Rapoport, J.L., Berg, C.J., Sceery, W., Kilts, C., Mellstrom, B. & Linnoila, M. (1985). Clomipramine treatment of childhood obsessive compulsive disorder: A double-blind controlled study.Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 977–983.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flament, M.F., Whitaker, A., Rapoport, J.L., Davies, M., Berg, C.Z., Kalikow, K., Sceery, W. & Shaffer, D. (1988). Obsessive compulsive disorder in adolescence. An epidemiological study.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, 27, 764–771.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flament, M.F., Koby, E., Rapoport, J.L., Berg, C.J., Zahn, T., Cox, C., Denckla, M. & Lenane, M. (1990). Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder: A prospective follow-up study.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 363–380.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flor-Henry, P. Yeydall, L.T., Koles, Z.J. & Howarth, B.G. (1979). Neuropsychological and power spectra EEG investigations of the obsessive-compulsive syndrome.Biological Psychiatry, 14, 119–130.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, S. (1955). Obsessions and phobias: Their psychical mechanisms and their etiology. In J. Strachey (Ed.)Collected Papers (pp. 128–137). London: Hogarth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghaziuddin, N, Metler, L., Ghaziuddin, M., Tsai, L. & Giordani, B. (1993). Three siblings with Asperger syndrome: A family case study.European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2, 44–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C. (1983). Perceptual, motor and attentional deficits in Swedish primary school children. Some child psychiatric aspects.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24, 377–403.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, I.C. & Gillberg, C. (1989). Asperger syndrome—some epidemiological considerations: A research note.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 631–638.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greist, J.H., Jefferson, J.W., Rosenfeld, R., Gutzmann, L.D., March, J.S. & Barklage, N.E. (1990). Clomipramine and obsessive compulsive disorder: A placebo controlled double-blind study of 32 patients.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 292–297.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grimshaw, L. (1964). Obsessional disorder and neurological illness.Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 27, 229–231.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gwirtsman, H.E., Guze, B.H., Yager, J. & Gainsley B. (1990). Fluoxetine treatment of anorexia nervosa: An open clinical trial.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51, 378–382.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Head, D., Bolton, D. & Hymas, N. (1989). Deficit in cognitive shifting ability in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.Biological Psychiatry, 25, 929–937.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, J.G. & Pollard, C.A. (1988). Three types of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 747–752.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holden, N.L. (1990). Is anorexia nervosa an obsessive compulsive disorder?British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hollander, E., Schiffman, E., Cohen, B., Rivera-Stein, M.A., Rosen, W., Gorman, J.M., Fyer, A.J., Papp, L. & Liebowitz, M.R. (1990). Signs of central nervous system dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 27–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hollander, E., Cohen, L. & DeCaria, C. (1993).Neuropsychiatric Studies of OCD. Presented af First International OCD Congress, Italy.

  • Hollingworth, C.E., Tangnay, P.E., Grossmann, L. & Pabst, P. (1980). Long-term outcome of obsessive compulsive disorder in childhood.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 19, 134–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honjo, S., Hirano, C., Murase, S., Kaneko, T., Sugiyama, T., Ohtaka, K., Ayoama, T., Takei, T., Inoko, K. & Wakabayashi, S. (1989). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in childhood and adolescence.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 80, 83–91.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, C.F. & Insel, T.R. (1984). Families of origin in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 172, 207–215.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, I.M. (1961). Obsessional illness in mental hospital patients.Journal of Mental Science, 107, 382–402.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Insel, T.R. (1992). Neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder: A review.International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7, (suppl. 1), 31–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Insell, T. R. & Akiskal, H.S. (1986). Obsessive-compulsive disorder with psychotic features: A phenomenological analysis.American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1527–1533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Insel, T.R., Gillin, J.C. & Moore, A. (1982). Sleep in obsessive compulsive disorder.Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1372–1377.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Insel, T.R., Donnelly, E.F., Lalakea, M.L., Alterman, I.S. & Murphy, D.L. (1983). Neurological and neuropsychological studies of patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.Biological Psychiatry, 18, 741–751.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jenike, M.A., Baer, L. & Minichiello, W.E. (1986).Obsessive compulsive disorders. Theory and Management. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenike, M.A., Baer, L. & Greist, J.H. (1990). Clomipramine versus fluoxetine in obsessive compulsive disorder: A retrospective comparison of side effects and efficacy.Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 122–124.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Judd, L. (1965). Obsessive compulsive neurosis in children.Archives of General Psychiatry, 12, 136–143.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karno, M., Golding, J.M., Sorenson, S.B. & Burnam, M.A. (1988). the epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities.Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1094–1099.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kasvikis, Y.G., Tsakiris, F., Marks, I.M., Basoglu, M. & Noshirvani, H.F. (1986). Past history of anorexia nervosa in women with obsessive-compulsive disorder.International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 1069–1075.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, R.J., De Veaugh-Geiss, J. & Landau, P. (1990). Clomipramine in obsessive compulsive disorder.Biological Psychiatry, 28, 401–414.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye, W.H., Weltzin, T.E., Hsu, L.K.G., Bulik, C.M., McConaha, C. & Sobkiewicz, T. (1992). Patients with anorexia nervosa have elevated scores on the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive scale.International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12, 57–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye, W.H., Weltzin, T.E. & Hsu, L.K.G. (1993).Is anorexia nervosa related to obsessive-compulsive disorder and/or altered serotonin activity? Presented at First International OCD Congress, Italy.

  • Kelly, M.W. & Myers, C.W. (1990). Clomipramine: A tricyclic antidepressant effective in obsessive compulsive disorder.DICP, The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 24, 739–744.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerimoglu, E. & Yalin, A. (1991).Obsessive-compulsive disorders and histeria (conversion reaction) in children. Poster presented at 9th Congress of European Society for Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, London.

  • Khanna, S., Rajendra, P.N. & Channabasavanna, S.M. (1988). Sociodemographic variables in obsessive-compulsive neurosis in India.Psychopathology, 32, 47–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khanna, S. & Srinath, S. (1988). Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder. 1. Psychopathology.Psychopathology, 21, 254–258.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knölker, U. (1988). EEG-Frequenzanalysen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Zwangsneurosen.Zeitschrifft für Kinder und Jugendpsychiatrie, 16, 180–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kopp, S. & Gillberg, C. (1992). Girls with social deficits and learning problems: Autism, atypical Asperger’s syndrome, or a variant of these conditions?European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1, 89–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kringlen, E. (1965). Obsessional neurotics: A long-term follow-up.British Journal of Psychiatry, 111, 709–722

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lenane, M.C., Swedo, S.E., Leonard, H., Pauls, D.L., Sceery, W. & Rapoport, J.L. (1990). Psychiatric disorders in first degree relatives of children and adolescents with obsessive compulsive disorder.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 407–412.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, H.L., Swedo, S., Rapoport, J.L., Coby, E.V., Lenane, M.C., Cheslow, D. & Hamburger, S.D. (1988). Treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder with clomipramine and desipramine in children and adolescents.Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1088–1092.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, H.L., Goldberger, E.L., Rapoport, J.L., Cheslow, D.L. & Swedo, S.E. (1990). Childhood rituals. Normal development or obsessive-compulsive symptoms?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 17–23.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, H.L., Lenane, M.C., Swedo, S.E., Rettew, D.C., Gershon, E.S. & Rapoport, J.L. (1992). Tics and Tourette disorder: A 2-year to 7-year follow-up of 54 obsessive-compulsive children.American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1244–1251.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, H.L., Swedo, S.E., Lenane, M.C., Rettew, D.C., Hamburger, S.D., Bartko, J.J. & Rapoport J.L. (1993). A two to seven year follow-up study of 54 obsessive compulsive children and adolescents.Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 429–439.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lo, W. (1967). A follow-up study of obsessional neurotics in Hong Kong Chinese.British Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 823–832.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinot, J.L., Allilaire, J.F., Mazoyer, B.M., Hantouche, E., Huret, J.D., Legaut-Demare, F., Deslauriers, A.G., Hardy, P., Pappata, S., Baron, J.C. & Syrota, A. (1990). Obsessive-compulsive disorder: A clinical, neuropsychological and positron emission tomography study.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82, 233–242.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mavissakalian, M., Hamann, M.S. & Jones, B. (1990a). Correlates of DSM-III personality disorder in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31, 481–489.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mavissakalian, M., Hamann, M.S. & Jones, B. (1990b). DSM-III personality disorder in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Changes with treatment.Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31, 432–437.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKeon, J., McGuffin, P. & Robinson, P. (1984). Obsessive-compulsive neurosis following head injury. A report of four cases.British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 190–192.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nee, L.E., Caine, E.D., Polinsky, R.J.V., Eldridge, R. & Ebert, M.H. (1980). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Clinical and family study of 50 cases.Annual Neurology, 7, 41–49.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, P.L. (1987). Minimal brain dysfunction and soft-signs: The collaborative perinatal project. In: D. Tupper (Ed.)Soft Neurological Signs (pp. 179–200). Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, D.H. (1986). Circumplex model VII: Validation studies and FACES III.Family Process, 25, 337–351.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pauls, D.L., Towbin, K.E., Leckman, J.F. & Zahner, G.E.P. (1986). Gilles de la Tourettes syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder.Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 1180–1182.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pauls, D.L., Goodman, W.K., Rasmussen, S. & Also-brook, J.P. (1993).Familial risk of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Presented at First International OCD Conference, Italy.

  • Piggott, T.A., Altemus, M., Rubenstein, C.S., Hill, J.L., Bihari, K., L’Heureux, F., Bernstein, S. & Murphy, D.L. (1991). Symptoms of eating disorders in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1552–1557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pious, W. (1950). Obsessive compulsive symptoms in an incipient schizophrenic.Psychoanalytical Quarterly, 19, 327–339.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pollitt, J. (1957). Natural history of a study, of 150 cases: Obsessional states.British Medical Journal, 1, 194–198.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J.L. (1986). Childhood obsessive compulsive disorder.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 289–296.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J.L. (1991). The neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder.Neuropsychopharmacology, 5, 1–10.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J.L., Elkins, R. & Langer, D. (1981). Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 1545–1554.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J.L., Swedo, S.E. & Leonard, H.L. (1992). Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53, suppl. 4, 11–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, S.A. & Eisen, J.L. (1992). The epidemiology and differential diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53, suppl. 4, 4–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, S.A. & Tsuang, M.T. (1984). The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 45, 450–457.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ratzoni, G., Hermesh, H., Brandt, N., Lauffer, M. & Munits, H. (1990). Clomipramine efficacy for tics, obsessions and compulsions in Tourette’s syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A case study.Biological Psychiatry, 27, 95–98.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, G. (1977). Obsessional personality disorder and remembering.British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 177–183.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rettew, D.C., Swedo, S.E., Leonard, H.L., Lenane, M.C. & Rapoport, J.L. (1992). Obsessions and compulsions across time in 79 children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1050–1056.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riddle, M.A., Scahill, L., King, R., Hardin, M.T., Towbin, K.E., Ort, S.I., Leckman, J.F. & Cohen, D.J. (1990). Obsessive compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: Phenomenology and family history.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, 766–772.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothenberg, A. (1986). Earting disorders as a modern obsessive-compulsive syndrome.Psychiatry, 49, 45–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Tizard, J., Yule, W., Graham, P. & Whitmore, K. (1976). Research report: Isle of Wight studies 1964–1974.Psychological Medicine, 6, 313–332.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Røijen, S. (1992). Anorexia nervosa families—a homogeneous group? A case record study.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 85, 196–200.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Råstam, M. & Gillberg, C. (1991). The family background in anorexia nervosa: A population-based study.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 283–289.

    PubMed  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Råstam, M. & Gillberg, C. (1992). Background factors in anorexia nervosa. A controlled study of 51 teenage cases including a population sample.European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1, 54–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, D., Schonfeld, I.S. & O’Connor, P.A. (1985). Neurological soft-signs and their relationship to psychiatric disorder and intelligence in childhood and adolescence.Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 342–351.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A.K., Shapiro, E.S., Young, J.G., & Feinberg, T.E. (1988).Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A.K. & Shapiro, E. (1992). Evaluation of the reported assosciation of obsessive-compulsive symptoms or disorder with Tourette’s disorder.Comprehensive Psychiatry, 33, 152–65.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, J.M. (1974). Observations on compulsive behavior in autism.Journal of Autism and Child Schizophrenia, 4, 1–10.

    CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solyom, L.S., Freeman, R.J. & Miles, J.E. (1982). A comparative psychometric study of anorexia nervosa and obsessive neurosis.Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 282–286.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stengel, E. (1945). A study of some clinical aspects of the relationship between obsessional neurosis and psychotic reaction types.Journal of Mental Science, 41, 166–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stonehill, E. & Crisp, A.H. (1977). Psychotic characteristics of patients with anorexia nervosa before and after treatment and at follow-up 4–7 years later.Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 21, 187–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swedo, S.E., Rapoport, J.L., Leonard, H., Lenane, M. & Cheslow, D. (1989). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical phenomenology of 70 consecutive cases.Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 335–341

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Szatmari, P., Bartolucci, G. & Bremner, R. (1989). Asperger’s syndrome and autism: Comparison of early history and outcome.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 31, 709–720.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tantam, D. (1988). Lifelong eccentricity and social isolation. II: Asperger’s syndrome or schizoid personality disorder?British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 783–791

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1991). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in children and adolescents. A phenomenological analysis of 61 Danish cases.Psychopathology, 24, 12–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1992). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in adolescence: Differential diagnostic considerations in relation to schizophrenia and manic-depressive disorder: A comparison of phenomenology and sociodemographic characteristics.Psychopathology, 25, 301–310.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1993). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. Self-reported obsessive symptoms and traits in Danish pupils.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 212–217.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1994a). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. A study of phenomenology and family functioning in 20 Danish cases.European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3, 29–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1994b). Obsessive-compuslive disorder in children and adolescents. A 6–22 year follow-up study. Clinical descriptions.European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1994c). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. An analysis of sociodemographic characteristics. A case-control study.Psychopathology, in press.

  • Thomsen, P.H. (1994d). Obsessive-compulsive disorder order in children and adolescents. A 6–22 year follow-up study of obsessive-compulsive and comorbid symptomatology. Predictors of outcome. Submitted.

  • Thomsen, P.H. & Jensen, J. (1991a). Latent class analysis of organic aspects of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 84, 391–395.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. & Jensen J. (1991b). Dimensional approach to obsessive-compulsive disorder in childhood and adolescence.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 83, 183–187.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. & Jensen, J. (1994). Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Diagnostic stability and admission patterns of Danish in-patients.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, in press.

  • Thomsen, P.H. & Mikkelsen, H.U. (1991). Children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: The demographic and diagnostic characteristics of 61 Danish patients.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 83, 262–266.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen, P.H. & Mikkelsen, H.U. (1993). Development of personality disorders in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. A 6–22 year follow-up study.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 87, 456–462.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorén, P., Åsberg, M. & Cronholm, B. (1980). Clomipramine treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. I. A controlled clinical trial.Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 1281–1285.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torgersen, S. (1983). Genetic factors in anxiety disorders.Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 1085–1089.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toro, J., Cervera, M., Osefo, E. & Salamero, M. (1992). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in childhood and adolescence: A clinical study.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 1025–1037.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Towey, J.P., Bruder, G., Hollander, E., Friedman, D., Erhan, H., Liebowitz, N. & Sutton, S. (1990). Endogenous eventrelated potentials in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Biological Psychiatry, 28, 92–98.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Videbæch, T. (1975). The psychopathology of anancastic endogenous depression.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 52, 336–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, W. (1996). Some relationships between the psychiatry of children and of adults.Journal of Mental Science, 106, 815–826.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, A.A., Robinson, S. & Winnik, H.Z. (1969). Obsessive psychosis—Psychodiagnostic findings.Israel Annals of Psychiatry and Related Disciplines, 7, 175–178.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, A.A., Robinson, S. & Winnik, H.Z. (1975). Obsessive psychosis—A cross-validation study.Israel Annals of Psychiatry, 13, 137–141.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M.M. (1993).The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Presented at the 1st International Obssive-Compulsive Conference, Italy.

  • Welner, A., Reich, T., Robins, E., Fishman, R., Van Doren, T. (1976). Obsessive compulsive neurosis: Record, follow-up and family studies. I. Inpatient record study.Comprehensive Psychiatry, 17, 527–539.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, L. (1981). Asperger’s syndrome: A clinical account.Psychological Medicine, 11, 115–129.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (1992).ICD-10 International Classification of Mental Disorders. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yaryura-Tobias, J.A. & Bhagavan, H.N. (1977). L-Tryptophan in obsessive-compulsive neurosis.American Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 1298–1299.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeitlin, H. (1986).The Natural History of Psychiatric Disorder in Children. Institute of Psychiatry, Maudsley Monographs. Oxford: University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zielinski, C.M., Taylor, M.A. & Juzwin, K.R. (1991). Neuropsychological deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 4, 110–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, A.H., Murphy, D.L. & Zohar-Kadouch, R.C. (1990). Serotonin in obsessive-compulsive disorder. In E.F. Coccaro & D.I. Murphy (Eds.)Serotonin in Major Psychiatric Disorders. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, A.H., Ratzoni, G., Pauls, D.L., Apter, A., Bleich, A., Kron, S., Rappaport, M., Weizman, A. & Cohen, D.J. (1992). An epidemiological study of obsessive-compulsive disorder and related disorders in Israeli adolescents.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1057–1061.

    PubMed  CAS  Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Affiliations

  1. Children’s Psychiatric Hospital, Harald Selmersvej 66, 8240, Risskov, Denmark

    Per Hove Thomsen

Authors
  1. Per Hove Thomsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thomsen, P.H. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. A review of the literature. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 3, 138–158 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02720322

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02720322

Keywords

  • Anorexia Nervosa
  • Eating Disorder
  • Personality Disorder
  • Adolescent Psychiatry
  • Asperger Syndrome