Abstract
Human orobuccolingual movement is reviewed in terms of stimulation and inhibition within the striatonigral pathways and its domination and control by motor area 4 and the inhibitory neocortex. Haloperidol, clozapine and cocaine are then compared in terms of the effects of each on the physiology and function within these areas under normal and certain pathological conditions. Theoretical models are then derived that formulate evidence that a unique, previously unreported, combination of two distinct neurological circumstances must occur simultaneously to satisfy the criteria for pathological orobuccolingual movement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arieti, S. (1955).Interpretation of Schizophrenia. New York: Robert Brunner Publishers.
Bachus, S.E. and Gale, K. (1988). Differential Effects of Chronic Treatment with Chlopramine Versus Cocaine on Behavioral Responsiveness to Nigral GABA Receptor Stimulation.Psychopharmacology 95:59.
Baldessurini, R.J. et al. (1991). Closapine, a Novel Antipsychotic Agent.New England Journal of Medicine 324:748.
Barison, R.L. et al. (1981). Site-specific Blockade of Dopamine Receptors by Neuroleptic Agents in the Human Brain.Neuro-pharmacology 20:1321–1322.
Buchsbaum, M.S. et al. (1992). Effects of Clozapine and Thiothixene on Glucose Metabolic Rate in Schizophrenia.Neuropsychopharmacology 6:155.
Bullfinch, T. (1939).Mythology. Garden City, N.Y.: Modern Library.
Burke, R.E. and Kang, L.J. (1988).Tardive Dyskinesia: Clinical Aspects and Treatment Advances in Neurology. Vol. 49, Facial Dyskinesias. New York: Raven Press.
Carpenter, M.B. and Sutin, J. (1983).Human Neuroanatomy. 8th edition. New York: Williams and Wilkins.
Coward, D.M. (1992). General Pharmacology of Clozapine.British Journal of Psychiatry 160 (suppl.171):5–11.
Del, P. (1958).The Reticular Formation of the Brain, Jaspen, H.H. (ed.) Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
Drew, K.L. et al. (1990). Regional Effects of Clozapine and Haloperidol on GABA and Dopamine Release in Rat Basal Ganglia.European Journal of Pharmacology 187:385–397.
Frey, M. et al. (1989). Chronic Haloperidol Administration Increases GABA Binding and Enhances Neuronal Responsiveness to Ionophoresed GABA in Rat Globus Pallidus.Brain Research 491:57–67.
Friedman, J.H. (1991). The Management of Levodpoa Psychosis.Clinical Pharmacology 14 (4):291.
Gerlach, J. and Decasey. (1988). Tardive Dyskinesia.ACTA Psychiatria Scandinavia 77:375.
Gunvant, K.T. et al. (1989). Saccadic Distractability in Schizophrenic Patients with Tardive Dyskinesia.Archives of General Psychiatry 46: 755–756.
Habal, R. et al. (1991). Chorea and Cocaine.American Journal of Emergency Medicine 9 (5):618–620.
Hall, W.C. et al. (1990). Cocaine Abuse and Its Treatment.Pharmacotherapy 10 (1):58.
Hegarty, A.M. et al. (1991). Cocaine as a Risk Factor for Acute Dystonic Reactions.Neurology 41:1670–1672.
Howard III, J.S. (1974). The Anatomy of Madness: Psychosis as Functional Hippocampal Afterdischarge.Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 208–214.
Howard, J.S. III (1996). Herpes Encephalitis, Schizophrenia and the Crossroads of Psychiatry.Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science 31 (3): 219–223.
Howard, J.S. III (1972). Schizophrenia and the Balinese.Conditional Reflex 12:2405.
Izenwassen, Sart, et al. (1990). Comparison of the Effects of Cocaine and Other Inhibitors of Dopamine Uptake in Rat Striatum, Nucleus Accumbens, Olfactory Tubercle, and Medical Prefrontal Cortex.Brain Research 520:305–358.
Jann, M.W. (1991). Clozapine.Pharmacotherapy 11:183.3.
Jesto, D.V. (1988). Pharmacological Treatments of Tardive Dyskinesia in the 1980s.Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 8 (4):438.
Kalivas, P.W. et al. (1990). Modulations of A10 Dopamine Neurons by Gamma Amino Butyric Acid.Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 23:858.
Kghaken, Gunvant, et al. (1990). Clorazepam Treatment of Tardive Dyskinesia: A Practical GABA-mimetic Strategy.American Journal of Psychiatry 147 (4):207.
Kumon, K. et al. (1986). Haloperidol Induced Dystonia in Cocaine Addicts.The Lancet (Dec. 6): 1341–1342.
Lieberman, J.A. et al. (1990). Dopaminergic Mechanisms in Idiopathic and Drug-induced Psychosis.Schizophrenia Bulletin 16 (1):102.
Nutt, J.G. (1990). Levodpoa Induced Dyskinesia, Review, Observations, and Speculation.Neurology 199 (40):607.
O’Dell, J. et al. (1990). Chronic Treatment with Clozapine or Haloperidol Differentially Regulates Dopamine and Serotonin Receptors in Rat Brain.Synapse 6:146–153.
Si, S.J. and Johnson, K.M. (1990). Effects of Acute and Chronic Administration of Cocaine on Striatal Uptake, Compartmentalization, and Release of Dopamine.Neuropharmacology 29 (5):475.
Tamminga, C.A. et al. (1992). Limbic System Abnormalities Identified in Schizophrenia Using Positron Emission Tomography with Fluodeoxyglucose and Neocortical Alterations With Deficit Syndrome.Archives of General Psychiatry 49:755–756.
Wiener, J.M. (1991).Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. New York: American Psychiatric Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Howard, J.S. Cocaine, neuroleptics, and tardive dyskinesia as paleocortical escape. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science 31, 306–314 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02691434
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02691434