Abstract
Geologic factors that are favorable or unfavorable for land use and construction strongly influenced the early history and expansion of the United States. Many Indian settlements in the American west were built on natural plateaus, near the rims of canyons, or in recesses in canyon walls where they could be defended easily. After 1492, European settlers built communities along the seacoasts, where there were natural harbors, or along lakes and rivers that were transportation routes. Many of these places were low and swampy, so that construction difficulties were common when the early settlements began to expand. Early roads and canals were laid out and built with little or no benefit of geologic knowledge.
The Appalachians were a barrier to westward expansion until the first part of the 19th century, when settlers began moving into the interior. In the 1850's the War Department engineers made exploratory surveys to determine the best routes for railroads that were to cross the country from the Mississippi to the Pacific Coast. Most of their geologic reports described the fossils, topography, lithology, and the natural resources of the country they explored, but dealt very little with the geological problems that might be encountered during construction of the railroads. In 1868 the burgeoning town of San Francisco was damaged by an earthquake, but the scientific report that was prepared after the disaster was never published.
During the late 1800's four great geological exploratory surveys examined the natural resources of the west, and in 1879 the U.S. Geological Survey was established as a government agency. At first the work of the Geological Survey emphasized mining geology, but the scope of their studies gradually broadened. In 1890 they published an account of the earthquake at Charleston, South Carolina. In 1894 the application of geologic information to construction was discussed in a Geological Survey publication dealing with roads of the United States. A similar report was published by the New York Geological Survey in 1897. However, it was not until the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, that the clear relationship between geology and civil engineering was well established, and the location of roads and structures was influenced by studies of the geologic conditions of the routes or sites.
Résumé
Les facteurs géologiques, qu'ils soient favorables ou non, ont fortement influencé l'histoire des Etats-Unis. Beaucoup de villages indiens de l'Ouest étaient établis sur des plateaux naturels, au bord de canyons ou dans des renfoncements dans les parois de canyons, tous lieux faciles à défendre. Après 1492, les colons européens construisirent leurs premiers villages le long des cotes, là où existaient des ports naturels, où au bord de lacs et de rivières utilisables pour le transport des marchandises.
Beaucoup de ces emplacements étaient à basse altitude, souvent marécageux, et les difficultés rencontrées lors de la construction, très fréquentes. Les premières routes et les premiers canaux furent mis en place et construits sans guère d'intervention des connaissances géologiques.
Les Appalaches ont été un obstacle à l'expansion vers l'Ouest jusqu'à la première moitié du XIXe siècle, quand des colons commencèrent à pénétrer vers l'intérieur du pays. Dans les années 1850 les ingénieurs des Armées firent des reconnaissances pour choisir les meilleurs itinéraires pour les chemins de fer destinés à traverser le pays depuis le Mississipi jusqu'à la côte du Pacifique. La plupart de leurs rapports géologiques contiennent une description des fossiles, de la topographie, de la lithologie et des ressources naturelles des régions traversées, mais ils prenaient très peu en compte les problèmes géologiques qu'allait soulever la construction des voies de chemin de fer. En 1868, la ville de San Francisco en plein développement, fut endommagée par un tremblement de terre, mais le rapport scientifique préparé après le désastre ne fut jamais publié.
A la fin du XIXe siècle, quatre grandes études géologiques furent lancées sur les ressources de l'Ouest, en en 1879 le “U.S. Geological Survey” fut mis en place en tant que Service de l'Etat. A l'origine, le travail du Geological Survey porta surtout sur la géologie minière, mais peu à peu le champ des activités s'agrandit. En 1890, ils publièrent un compte-rendu du tremblement de terre de Charleston, en Caroline du Sud. En 1894, une publication du Geological Survey prit en compte les données géologiques pour le choix des tracés routiers. Un rapport similaire fut publié par le “New York Geological Survey” en 1897. Cependant ce n'est que tout à fait à la fin du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe qu'une relation claire fut établie entre la géologie et le Génie Civil et que le choix des tracés et des structures fut réellement influencé par l'étude des conditions géologiques des sites.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References cited
ADAMS F.D., 1938: The birth and development of the geological sciences: New York, Dover, 506 p.
BALL John, 1942: Egypt in the classical geographers: Cairo, Egypt, Ministry of Finance, 203 p.
BANNON J.F., 1963: The Spanish borderlands frontier, 1513–1821: Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press 308 p.
BERKEY C.P., 1911: Geology of the New York City (Catskill) Aqueduct: New-York State Museum Bulletin 146 (State University of New York Education Department Bulletin No. 489), 283 p.
BIDDLE J.W., 1854 1903: Recollections of Green Bay in 1816–17, in Draper, L. C., ed., Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin: Madison, Wis., Wisconsin Historical Society, v. 1, p. 49–63.
CARR M.S., 1950: The District of Columbia: Its rocks and their geologic history: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 967, 59 p.
Central Pacific Rail road Co, 1865, Statement made to the President of the United States, and Secretary of the Interior of the progress of the work, October 10th, 1865; Sacramento, Calif., H. S. Crocker and Co., 12 p.
CHEVALLIER Raymond, 1976: Roman roads: Berkeley, University of California Press, 272 p.
CLEAVES A.B. and STEPHENSON R.C., 1949: Guidebook to the geology of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, Carlisle to Irwin: Pennsylvania Geological Survey Bulletin G 24, ser. 4, 72 p.
COLE H.P., 1925: The old military road: Wisconsin Magazine of History, v. 9, p. 47–62.
COOKE Alistair, 1977: Alistair Cooke's America: New York, Alfred A. Knopf 400 p.
COOKE C.W., 1945: Geology of Florida in Florida Geological Survey, Geological Bulletin 29, 339 p.
DAGGETT Stuart, 1966: Chapters on the history of the Southern Pacific: New York, Augustus M. Kelley, 470 p.
DAVIES W.E., 1971: Field Trip No. 7, Historical engineering geology of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Geological Society of America, and the Association of Engineering Geologists, 10 p.
DODGE G.M., 1910: How we built the Union Pacific Railway and other railway papers and addresses: 61st Cong., 2d sess., U.S. Senate Document 447, 136 p.
DUKE Donald, ed., 1978: Water trails west: New York, Doubleday, 271 p.
DUTTON C.E., 1889: The Charleston earthquake of August 31, 1886: in U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 9, p. 203–528.
ECKEL E.B., VARNES D.J., McGILL J.T. and SCHUSTER R.L., 1979: Engineering Geology Branch—a history. Geotimes, v. 24, no. 3, p. 31–33.
Editors of Sunset Books and Sunset Magazine, 1970, Southwest Indian Country: Menlo Park, Calif., Lane Books, 80 p.
Federal Writers Project, Works Progress Administration, 1937, Washington City and Capital: Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office 1140 p.
FELL, BARRY 1978: America B. C.: New York, Pocket Books, 312 p.
FREIDEL Frank and AIKMAN Lonnelle, 1973: Man and monument: Washington, Washington National Monument Associaton, 69 p.
HAHN T.F. 1974: Towpath Guide to the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal, Section one, Georgetown (Tidelock) to Seneca: Shepherdstown, West Virginia, American Canal and Transportation Center 56 p.
HAHN T.F., 1976: George Washington's canal at Great Falls, Virginia: Shepherdstown, West Virginia, American Canal and Transportation Center, 44 p.
HOOVER Herbert, 1934: Improvement of the Washington Monument grounds, communication from the President of the United States transmitting a report on the improvement of the Washington Monument grounds authorized by the Independent Offices Act of 1931, approved April 19, 1930, together with several plans and estimates, therefor, (sic) 72nd Cong., 2nd sess., U.S. House of Representatives Document 528, 54 p.
HOPKINS D.M., 1967: The Cenozoic history of Beringia—A systhesis, in Hopkins, D.M., ed., The Bering land bridge: Stanford, Calif. Stanford University Press, p. 451–484.
HUMPHREYS A.A. and ABBOT H.L., 1876: Report upon the physics and hydraulics of the Mississippi River; Protection of the alluvial region against overflow; and upon the deepening of the mouths: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Professional Paper 13, 691 p. (a reprint, with additions, of Professional Paper 4, 1861, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Topographical Engineers).
KAYE C.A., 1976: The geology and early history of the Boston area of Massachusetts, a bicentennial approach: U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1476, 78 p.
KELLOGG L.P., 1934: Old Fort Howard: Wisconsin Magazine of History, v. 18, p. 125–140.
KEMP J.F., 1887: The geology of Manhattan Island: New York Academy of Sciences Transactions, v. 7, p. 49–64.
KEMP J.F., 1895: The geological section of the East River, at Seventieth Street, New York: New York Academy of Sciences Transactions, v. 14, p. 273–276.
KEMP J.F., 1908: Buried channels beneath the Hudson and its tributaries: American Journal of Science, ser. 4, v. 26, no. 154, p. 301–323.
KEMP J.F., 1912a: Geological problems presented by the Catskill Aqueduct of the City of New York: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Journal, v. 14, p. 472–478.
KEMP J.F., 1912b: The Storm king crossing of the Hudson River: American Journal of Science, ser. 4, v. 24, no. 199, p. 1–11.
KNIGHT Robert and ZEUCH L.H., 1928: The location of the Chicago portage—route of the seventeenth century: Chicago, Illinois, Chicago Historical Society, 145 p.
LAWSON, A.C., 1908: The San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906: Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 87, v. 1, pt.2, p. 255–451.
LEWIS Oscar, 1954: George Davidson, pioneer west coast scientist: Berkeley, University of California Press, 146 p.
LEWIS P.F., 1976: New Orleans—the making of an urban landscape: Cambridge, Massachusetts, Ballinger, 114 p.
LOUDERBACK G.D., 1951: Geologic history of San Francisco Bay, in Jenkins, 0. P., Geologic guidebook of the San Francisco Bay counties: California Division of Mines and Geology Bulletin 154, p. 75–94.
MACLURE William, 1818: Observations on the geology of the United States of America: American Philosophical Society Transactions, v. 1, n.s., p 191.
MERRILL F.J.H., 1897: Road materials and road building in New York: New York State Museum Bulletin v. 4, no. 17, 134 p.
MERRILL G.P., 1906: Contributions to the history of American Geology: Report of the U.S. National Museum, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, for the year ending June 30, 1904, p. 189–733.
MERRILL G.P., 1964: The first one hundred years of American geology. New York, Hafner, 773 p. originally published in 1924.
MINGE A.W. 1976: Acoma, pueblo in the sky: Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 180 p.
MONTAGUE S.S., 1865: Reports of the president and chief engineer, upon recent surveys, progress of construction, and estimated revenue of the Central Pacific Railroad of California: December, 1865, 22 p. (Publisher unknown.).
MORISON S.E., 1965: The Oxford history of the American people: New York, Oxford University Press, 1150 p.
NEWTON A.P., 1968: Introduction—the conception of the world in the Middle Ages, in Newton A. P., ed., Travel and travellers of the Middle Ages New York, Barnes and Noble, p. 1–18.
NICHOLS D.R., 1982: Application of earth sciences to land-use problems in the United States, with emphasis on the role of the U. S. Geological Survey, in Whitmore, F. C., Jr., and Williams, M. E., eds., Resources for the twenty-first century —proceedings of the international centennial symposium of the U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1193, p. 283–291.
PECK R.B., 1948: History of building foundations in Chicago: University of Illinois Bulletin, v. 45, no. 29, 64 p.
PHILLIPS John, 1978: Memoirs of William Smith: New York, Arno, 150 p. originally published in 1844.
U.S. Geological Survey, 1890: Irrigation: Annual Report 10, pt. 2, 123 p.
PRUCHA F.P., 1967: Broadax and bayonet, the role of the United States Army in the development of the Northwest, 1815–1860: Lincoln, Nebraskal University of Nebraska Press, 263 p.
RABBIT M.C., 1979a: A brief history of the U.S. Geological Survey (2d ed.): Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey, 48 p.
RABBITT M.C., 1979b: Minerals, lands, and geology for the common defence and general welfare, v. I, before 1879 Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 331 p.
RADBRUCH-HALL D.H., 1977: The systematic evaluation of landslide incidence and susceptibility in the United States: International Association of Engineering Geology Bulletin, No. 16, p. 82–86.
ROSE A.C., 1976: Historic American roads: New York, Crown, 118 p.
SHALER N.S., 1895a: Preliminary Report on the geology of the common roads of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 15, p. 259–306.
SHALER N.S., 1895b: The geology of the road-building stones of Massachusetts, with some consideration of similar materials from other parts of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Annual Report 16, pt. 2, p. 277–341.
THROWER N.J.W., 1972: Maps and man: New York, Prentice-Hall, 184 p.
TUOMEY M., 1851: Report on a geological examination of a portion of the line and contemplated reservoirs of the James River and Kanawha Canal, in Report of the Committee of Stockholders of the James River and Kanawha Canal Co: Richmond, Va., James River and Kanawha Canal Co., p. 325–336.
U.S. War Department, 1855–60: Reports of explorations and surveys, to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Made under the direction of the Secretary of War, in 1853–54, 12 v., 33d Cong., 2d sess., Executive Document 78.
VAN LENNEP David, 1867: Report of David Van Lennep, Geologist, U.P.R.R., in Union Pacific Railroad Co., 1868, Report of the Chief Engineer with accompanying reports of division engineers, for 1866: Washington, D. C., Philip & Solomons, p. 97–123.
VAN LENNEP David, 1868: Report of David Van Lennep, in Union Pacific Railroad, 1868, Report of G. M. Dodge, Chief Engineer, with accompanying reports of Chiefs of parties, for the year 1867: Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office.
WAGGONER M.S., 1958: The Long Haul West; the Great Canal Era 1817–1850: Putnam, 320 p.
WENTWORTH C.K., 1924: The fossil swamp deposit at the Walker Hotel site, Connecticut Avenue and de Sales Street, Washington, D. C.: Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, v. 14, no. 1, p. 1–41.
WHITE G.W., 1951: Lewis Evans' Contributions to Early American Geology—1743–1755, in White, G. W., 1978, Essays on History of Geology: Arno Press, A New York Times Company, New York, p. 152–158.
ZITTEL Karl von, 1962: History of Geology and palaeontology; Hafner Publishing Co., N.Y., 562 p.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Radbruch-Hall, D.H. The role of engineering-geologic factors in the early settlement and expansion of the conterminous United States. Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology 35, 9–30 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02590473
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02590473