Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The human axillary organ: An evolutionary puzzle

  • Published:
Human Evolution

Abstract

In the cavum axillae of humans lies a glandular organ composed of tightly packed apocrine glands with secrete a colourless, or slightly pigmented fluid — the so-called axillary organ. It develops during childhood but remains inactive until the onset of sexual maturity when it grows hairs and embarks on a lifetime of secretion. A similar structure occurs in African apes but in no other Primates. Being equally well-developed in males and females the axillary organ is not a secondary sexual characteristic, even though it produces secretions rich in steroidal compound relating to sex and sexual status. It is argued that, with the development of gregariousness, the brain’s recognition template for odorous oestrus advertisement was blocked in order to protect the bond between parents which was necessary for ensuring maximum offspring survival. The axillary organ took on a new role, namely to provide odorous stimulation for strengthening the pairbond, and lost its previous role as advertiser of individuality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arnold, H.L., Odom, R.B. & James, W.D. (eds), 1990.Andrew’s Diseases of the Skin. 8th Edition. Philadelphia: Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, B.A. & Shillito, E.E., 1974.The effects of ablation of the olfactory bulbs on parturition and maternal behaviour in Soay sheep. Animal Behaviour 22, 220–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedichek, R., 1960.The Sense of Smell.London:Michael Joseph.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bielert, C. 1986.Sexual interactions between captive adult male and female Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) as related to the females’ menstrual cycle. Journal of Zoology 209, 521–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bird, S. & Gower, D.B., 1981.The validation and use of a radioimmunoassay for 5a-androst-16-en-3-one in human axillary collections. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry, 14, 213–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkmann, A., 1909.Ueber das Vorkommen von Hautdruesenorganen bei den anthropomorphen Affen. Anatomischer Anzeiger 34, 513–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D.M., 1985.Human mate selection. American Scientist 73, 47–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, B., 1979.The sexual significance of the axillae. Psychiatry 38, 278–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, D.B., 1951.On the hormones and neural control of the release of gametes in ascidians. Journal of Experimental Biology 28, 463–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C., 1871.The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London: John Murray (New Edition — 1901).

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J., 1986. “I want a girl just like the girl....” Discover, November 65–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J., 1991.The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee. London: Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, R.A. & Montagna, W., 1962.The skin of primates. VI The skin of the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 20, 79–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fillion, T.J. & Blass, E.M., 1986.Infantile experience with suckling odors determines adult sexual behavior in male rats. Science, 231, 729–731.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gangestad, S.W., Thornhill, R., & Yeo, R.A., 1994.Facial attractiveness, developmental stability and fluctuating asymmetry. Ethology and Sociobiology 15, 73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geissmann, T., 1993.Evolution of communication in gibbons (Hylobatidae). unpubl. PhD thesis, Universitaet von Zurich.

  • Goodall, J., 1986.The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, G.M. & Pyle, W.L., 1987.Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine. Philadelphia: Saunders & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gower, D.B., 1988.The significance of odorous steroids in axillary odour. In: Perfumery, the Psychology and Biology of Fragrance. Eds: Van Toller, S., & Dodd, G.H., 47–76 London: Chapman & Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gower, D.B., 1972.Delta-16 unsaturated C-19 steroids: a review of their chemistry, biochemistry and possible physiological role. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 3, 45–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, L., 1964.The Mythology of all Races. New York: Cooper Square.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, A., 1901.Die Sexuelle Osphresiologie. Charlottenburg: H. Barsdorf Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hara, T.J., 1994.The diversity of chemical stimulation in fish olfaction and gustation. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 4, 1–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hepper, P.G., 1991.The discrimination of human odour by the dog. Perception 17, 549–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, K., 1982.Hunting and human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 11, 521–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huxley, J.S., 1914.The courtship habits of the great crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus); with an addition to the theory of sexual selection. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 35, 491–561.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J.L., & Hunter, F.M., 1993.Mutual sexual selection in a monogamous seabird. Nature 362, 238–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaitz, M., Good, A., Rokem, A.M. & Eidelman, A.I., 1987.Mothers’ recognition of their newborns by olfactory cues. Developmental Psychobiology 20, 587–591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalmus, H., 1955.The discrimination by the nose of the dog of individual human odours and in particular the odour of twins. British Journal of Animal Behaviour 3, 25–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick, M., 1987.Sexual selection by female choice in polygynous animals. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18, 43–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klaar, J., 1926.Zur Kenntnis des weiblichen Axillarorogans beim Menschen. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift 5, 127–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klingmuller, D., Dewes, W., Krahe, T., Brecht, G., & Schweibert, H.U., 1987.Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in patients with insomnia and hypothalamic hypogonadism (Kallman’s Syndrome). Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 65, 581–584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klopfer, P.H., Adams, D.K., & Klopfer, M.R., 1962.Maternal “imprinting” in goats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 52, 911–914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohl, J.V. & Francoeur, R.T., 1995.The Scent of Eros: Mysteries of Odor in Human Sexuality. New York: Continuum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Labows, J.N., Preti, G., Holzle, E., Leyden, J.J., & Kligman, A.M., 1979.Steroid analysis of human apocrine secretions. Steroids 34, 249–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamprecht, J., 1970.Duettgesang beim Siamang, Symphalangus syndactylus (Hominoidea, Hylobatinae). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 27, 186–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leyden, J.J., McGinley, K.J., Holzle, E., Labows, J.N. & Kligman, A.M., 1981.The microbiology of the human axilla and its relationship to axillary odour. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 77, 413–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Livshits, G. & Kobylianski, E., 1991.Fluctuating asymmetry as a possible measure of developmental homeostasis in humans: a review. Human Biology 63, 441–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayr, E., 1974.Sexual selection and natural selection. In: Sexual Selection and the Descent 1871–1971. Ed: Campbell, B.H. Chicago: Undine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meisenheimer, J., 1921.Geschlecht und Geschlechter in Tierreich. Vol. 1. Die naturlichen Beziehungen. Jena: Fisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melrose, D.R., Reed, H.C.B. & Patterson, R.L.S., 1971.Androgen steroids associated with boar odour as an aid to the detection of oestrus in pig artificial insemination. British Veterinary Journal 127, 497–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W., 1959.Histology and cytochemistry of human skin. XIX. The development and fate of the axillary organ. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 33, 151–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W., 1963.Histology and cytochemistry of human skin. XX Further observations on the axillary organ. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 42, 119–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W., 1972.The skin of non-human primates. American Zoologist 12, 109–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W., 1982.The evolution of human skin. In: Advanced Views in Primate Biology. Eds.: Chiarelli, A.B. & Corruccini, R.S. 35–41 Berlin: Springer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W., 1985.The evolution of human skin. Journal of Human Evolution 14, 3–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W., & Yun, J.S., 1963.The skin of primates. XVThe skin of the chimpanzee (Pan satyrus). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 21, 189–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, D., 1967.The Naked Ape. London: Jonathan Cape.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller-Schwarze, D.M., Volkman, N.J. & Zemanek, K.F., 1977.Osmetrichia: a specialised scent hair in black tailed deer. Journal of Ultrastructure Research 59, 223–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nixon, A., Mallet, A.I., & Gower, D.B., 1988.Simultaneous quantification of five odorous steroids (16-androstenes) in the axillary hair of men. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 29, 505–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noble, W. & Davidson, I., 1996.Human Evolution, Language and Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fetrie, M., Halliday, T., & Sanders, C., 1991.Peahens prefer peacocks with elaborate trains. Animal Behaviour 41, 323–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrie, M., & Halliday, T., 1994.Experimental and natural changes in peacocks’ (Pavo cristatus) trains can affect mating success. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 35, 213–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poran, N.S., 1994.Cyclic attractivity of human odors. Advances in the Biosciences 93, 555–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R.H., Balogh, R.D., Chernoch, J.M. & Franchi, C., 1986.Recognition of kin through characteristic body odors. Chemical Senses 11, 389–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R.H. & Etscorn, F., 1974.Olfactory imprinting from brief exposure in Acomys cahirinus. Nature 250, 732–733.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preti, G., Cutler, W.B., Garcia, C.R., Huggins, G.R., & Lawley, H.J., 1986.Human axillary secretions influence womens’ menstrual cycles: The role of donor extract of females. Hormones and Behavior 20, 474–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preti, G., Cutler, W.B., Christensen, C.M., Lawley, H.J., Huggins, G.R. & Garcia, C.R., 1987.Human axillary extracts: analysis of compounds from samples which influence menstrual timing. Journal of Chemical Ecology 13, 717–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rennie, P.J., Gower, D.B., Holland, K.T., Mallet, A.I. & Watkins, W.J., 1990.The skin microflora and the formation of human axillary odour. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 12, 197–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J.G., 1979.An analysis of the organisation of vocal communication in the titi monkey, Callicebus moloch. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 49, 381–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M.J., 1976.Human olfactory communication. Nature 260, 520–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, M.J., Switz, G.M. & Thomson, K., 1980.Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 13, 737–738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiefferdecker, P., 1922.Die Hautdrüsen des Menschen und die Säugetiere, ihre biologische und rassenanatomische Bedeutung, Sowie die Muscularis sexualis. Zoologica 27, 1–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, K., 1986.The bone assemblages of Layers 3 and 6. In: La Cotte de St. Brelade, ed: Callow, P. & Cornford, J., 159–183. Norwich: Geo Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Serpell, J., 1981.Duets, greetings and triumph ceremonies: Analogous displays in the parrot genus Trichoglossus. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 55, 268–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Settle, R.H., Sommerville, B.A., McCormick, J.P. & Broom, D.M., 1994.Human scent matching using specially trained dogs.Animal Behaviour 48, 1443–1448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • shelley, W.B., & Hurley, H.J., 1953.The physiology of the human axillary apocrine sweat gland. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 20, 285–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shelley, W.B., & Butterworth, T., 1955.The absence of the apocrine glands and hair in the axilla in mongolism and idiocy. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 25, 165–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Signoret, J.P., 1976.Chemical communication and reproduction in domestic mammals. In: Mammalian Olfaction, Reproductive Processes and Behavior. Ed: Doty, R.L. 243–256. New York: AP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoddart, D.M., 1980.The Ecology of Vertebrate Olfaction. London: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoddart, D.M., 1984.The origin and development of mammalian chemoreception. Acta Zoologica Fennica 171, 39–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoddart, D.M., 1986.The role of olfaction in the evolution of human sexual biology: an hypothesis. Man 21, 514–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stoddart, D.M., 1990.The Scented Ape: the Biology and Culture of Human Odour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Talke, L., 1903.Ueber die grosse Drusen der Achselhohlenhaut des Menschen. Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie 61, 537–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilson, R.L., 1977.Duetting in Namib Desert klipspringers. South African Journal of Science 73, 314–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivers, R.L., 1972.Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man 1871–1971. Ed: Campbell, B.H. 136–179 Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanderbergh, J.G., 1983. (Ed.)Pheromones and Reproduction in Mammals. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wickler, W., 1976.Duetting in Birds: biological significance of stationary and non-stationary processes. Journal of Theoretical Biology 61, 493–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickler, W., 1980.Vocal duetting and the pair-bond: 1. Coyness and partner commitment, a hypothesis. Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 52, 201–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamazaki, K., Yamaguchi, M., Beauchamp, G.K., Bard, J., Boyse, E.A. & Thomas, L., 1981.Chemosensation: an aspect of the uniqueness of the individual.In:Biochemistry of Taste and Olfaction. Eds.: Cagan, R.H., & Kare, M.R. 85–91. New York: AP.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeng, C., Spielman, A.I., Vowels, B.R., Leyden, J.J., Bieman, K. & Preti, G., 1996.A human axillary odorant is carried by apoliprotein D. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 93, 6626–6630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of New England, 2351, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia

    D. M. Stoddart

Authors
  1. D. M. Stoddart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Stoddart, D.M. The human axillary organ: An evolutionary puzzle. Hum. Evol. 13, 73–89 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02439386

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02439386

Key words

Search

Navigation