Abstract
In 1969, Ford offered a comprehensive model for the diffusion of ceramic production and Formative lifeways in the New World. Although criticized as simplistic, it was echoed by other “unitary” models, such as Lathrap's spread of Tropical Forest culture outward from a lowland South American hearth. Radiocarbon dates suggest that the earliest American pottery appears in the Amazon basin as early as 6000 B.C. However, there is little support for an “ex Amazonas lux” spread of pottery technology. Diffusionary models predict early complexes will resemble one another at first and then diverge over time, but comparative analysis reveals substantial variability even at the earliest time level. Heterogeneity among the earliest complexes indicates several likely hearths for the independent evolution of ceramic production, including (1) lowland Brazil, (2) northern Colombia, (3) coastal Ecuador, (4) coastal Peru, (5) central Panama, (6) southern Mesoamerica, (7) the southeastern United States, and (8) the central United States.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, W. L. (1968).A Ceramic Sequence for the Alto Pachitea, PerÚ, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana.
Andrews V, E. W., and Hammond, N. (1990). Redefinition of the Swasey phase at Cuello, Belize.American Antiquity 55(3): 570–584.
Bischof, H. (1966). Canapote—An early ceramic site in northern Colombia. Preliminary report. InProceedings of the 36th International Congress of Americanists,1, Seville, pp. 484–491.
Bischof, H. (1972). The origins of pottery in South America—Recent radiocarbon dates from south-west Ecuador.Proceedings of the 40th International Congress of Americanists 1, Rome, pp. 269–281.
Bischof, H., and Viteri G. J., (1972). Pre-Valdivia occupations on the southwest coast of Ecuador.American Antiquity 37(4): 548–551.
Blake, M. (1991). An emerging Early Formative chiefdom at Paso de la Amada, Chiapas, Mexico. In Fowler, W. R. (ed.),The Formation of Complex Society in Southeastern Mesoamerica, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 27–46.
Blake, M., Clark, J. E., Chisholm, B., and Mudar, K. (1992). Non-agricultural staples and agricultural supplements: Early Formative subsistence in the Soconusco region, Mexico. In Gebauer, A. B., and Price, T. D. (eds.).Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, pp. 133–151.
Blakeslee, D. J., and Rohn, A. H. (1982).Man and Environment in Northeastern Kansas: The Hillside Lake Project, Vol. 3, Draft report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Kansas City District.
Browman, D. L. (1980). Tiwanaku expansion and altiplano economic patterns.Estudios Arqueológicos 5: 107–120.
Brush, C. F. (1965). Pox pottery: Earliest identified Mexican ceramic.Science 149: 194–195.
Bullen, R. P. (1961). The earliest pottery in southeastern United States, 2000-1000 B.C. and its case as an independent invention,6th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Paris.
Bullen, R. P. (1961). Radiocarbon dates for southeastern fiber-tempered pottery.American Antiquity 27: 104–106.
Bullen, R. P., and Stoltman, J. (eds.) (1972). Fiber-tempered pottery in the southeastern United States and northern Colombia: Its origins, context, and significance.Florida Anthropological Society Publications 6, part 2,The Florida Anthropologist, Fort Lauderdale.
Burger, R. L. (1985). Prehistoric stylistic change and cultural development at Huaricoto, Peru.National Geographic Research 1: 505–534.
Burger, R. L. (1991). The beginning of ceramic use in Peru as viewed from Huaricoto.Paleoetnológica 5: 259–266.
Burger, R. L. (1992).Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization, Thames and Hudson, New York.
Calmes, A. (1968). Test excavations at three late Archaic shell-ring mounds on Hilton Head Island, Beaufort County, South Carolina.Southeastern Archaeological Conference Bulletin 8: 45–48.
Ceja T., J. F. (1985). Paso de la Amada: An Early Preclassic site in the Soconusco, Chiapas.Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, 49, Brigham Young University, Provo.
Childe, V. G. (1942).What Happened in History. Middlesex, England, Penguin Books.
Clark, J. E. (1991). The beginnings of Mesoamerica: Apologia for the Soconusco Early Formative. In Fowler, W. R. (ed.),The Formation of Complex Society in Southeastern Mesoamerica, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 13–26.
Clark, J. E., and Blake, M. (1991). The power of prestige: Competitive generosity and the emergence of rank societies in lowland Mesoamerica. In Brumfiel, E., and Fox, J. (eds.),Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, New York, Cambridge University Press.
Clark, J. E., Blake, M., Guzy, P., Cuevas, M., and Salcedo, T. (1987). Final report to the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia of the Early Preclassic Pacific Coastal Project. Ms. on file, New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo.
Clark, J. E., and Gosser, G. (1993).Reinventing Mesoamerica's first pottery. Paper presented at the 58th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, St. Louis.
Coe, M. D. (1960). Archaeological linkages with North and South America at La Victoria, Guatemala.American Anthropologist 62: 363–393.
Coe, M. D. (1961). La Victoria, an early site on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala.Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,53, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Cooke, R. G. (1984). Archaeological research in central and eastern Panama: A review of some problems. In Lange, F. W., and Stone, D. Z. (eds.),The Archaeology of Lower Central America. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 263–304.
Cooke, R. G., and Ranere, A. J. (1992a). The origin of wealth and hierarchy in the central region of Panama (12,000-2,000 BP), with observations on its relevance to the history and phylogeny of Chibchan-speaking polities in Panama and elsewhere. In Lange, F. W. (ed.),Wealth and Hierarchy in the Intermediate Area, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC, pp. 243–316.
Cooke, R. G., and Ranere, A. J. (1992b). Prehistoric human adaptations to the seasonally dry forests of Panama.World Archaeology 24: 114–113.
Corrales U., F. (1985). Prospección y excavaciones estratigráficas en el Sitio Curré (P-62-Cé) Valle Diquís, Costa Rica.Vinculos 11: 1–5.
Corrales U., F. (1989). La Ocupación Agricola Temprana del Sitio Arqueológico Curré, Valle del Diquís. Thesis presented for the degree of Licenciado in Anthropology, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro, Costa Rica. Ms. on file, Departamiento de Antropología y Sociología, Universidad de Costa Rica.
Crusoe, D. L. (1972).Interaction Networks and New World Fiber-Tempered Pottery, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia, Athens.
Damp, J. (1984a). Architecture of the Early Valdivia village.American Antiquity 49: 573–585.
Damp, J. (1984b). Environment variation, agriculture, and settlement processes in coastal Ecuador (3300-1500 B.C.).Current Anthropology 25: 106–111.
Damp, J. (1988).Casa y Comunidad: Patrones Económicos, Arquitectóicos e Ideológicos de Real Alto, Valdivia Temprano, Corporación Editorial Nacional, Quito.
Damp, J., and Vargas, P. (1990). Altomayo and Real Alto: The early ceramics of coastal Ecuador, Ms. on file, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
Deevey, E. S., Gralenski, L. J., and Hoffren, V. (1959). Yale natural radiocarbon measurements, IV.Radiocarbon Supplement, 1, New Haven, CT.
Estrada, E., Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. (1962). Possible transpacific contact on the coast of Ecuador.Science 135: 371–372.
Fiedel, S. J. (1992).Prehistory of the Americas (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, New York.
Ford, J. A. (1936).Analysis of Indian Village Site Collections from Louisiana and Mississippi, Anthropological Study No. 2, Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey.
Ford, J. A. (1966). Early Formative cultures in Georgia and Florida.American Antiquity 31: 781–799.
Ford, J. A. (1969). A comparison of Formative cultures in the Americas: Diffusion or the psychic unity of man?Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 11, Washington, DC.
Foster, D. W., and Lathrap, D. W. (1973). Further evidence for a well-developed tropical forest culture on the north coast of Colombia during the first and second millennium B.C.Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 4: 160–199.
Fung P., R. (1988). The Late Preceramic and Initial Period. In Keatinge, R. W. (ed.),PerÚvian Prehistory, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 67–96.
Gayton, A. E. (1967). Textiles from Hacha, PerÚ. ¯NawpaPacha 5: 1–14.
Green, D., and Lowe, G. W. (1967). Altamira and Padre Piedra, Early Preclassic Sites in Chiapas, Mexico.Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, 20, Provo.
Grieder, T. (1975). A dated sequence of building and pottery at Las Haldas.¯Nawpa Pacha 13: 99–112.
Grieder, T., Mendoza, A. B., Smith, C. E., Jr., and Malina, R. M. (1988).La Galgada, Peru: A Preceramic Culture in Transition, Austin, University of Texas Press.
Grossman, J. W. (1985). Demographic change and economic transformation in the south central highlands of Pre-Huari PerÚ.¯Nawpa Pacha 21: 45–126.
Haberland, W. (1966). Early phases on Ometepe Island, Nicaragua.Proceedings of the 36th International Congress of Americanists 1: 399–403. Seville.
Haberland, W. (1992). The culture of Ometepe Island: Preliminary sketch (survey and excavations, 1962–1963). In Lange, F. W., Sheets, P. D., MartĪnez, A., and Abel-Vidor, S. (eds.),The Archaeology of Pacific Nicaragua, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 63–118.
Hammond, N., Pring, D., Wilk, R., Donaghey, S., Soul, F., Wing, E., Miller, A., and Feldman, L. (1979). The earliest lowland Maya? Definition of the Swasey Phase.American Antiquity 44(1): 92–110.
Hansell, P., and Adams, J. (1980). The application of sediment analysis to cultural deposits. Paper presented at the 45th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Philadelphia.
Hedges, R. E. M., Timie, C., and Housley, R. A. (1992). Results and methods in the radiocarbon dating of pottery.Radiocarbon 34: 906–915.
Hill, B. (1975). A new chronology of the Valdivia ceramic complex from the coastal zone of Guayas Province, Ecuador.¯Nawpa Pacha 10–12: 1–39.
Hoopes, J. W. (1985). El complejo Tronadora: cerámica del período Formativo Medio en la Cuenca de Arenal, Guanacaste, Costa Rica.Vinculos 11: 111–118.
Hoopes, J. W. (1987).Early Ceramics and the Origins of Village Life in Lower Central America, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.
Hoopes, J. W. (1992). Early Formative cultures in the intermediate area: A background to the emergence of social complexity. In Lange, F. W. (ed.),Wealth and Hierarchy in the Intermediate Area, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 43–84.
Izumi, S., and Terada, K. (1972).Andes 4. Excavations at Kotosh, Peru, 1963 and 1966, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
Johnson, F., and MacNeish, R. S. (1972). Chronometric Dating. In Johnson, F. (ed.)The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley, Vol. 4: Chronology and Irrigation, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 3–58.
Kaulicke, P. (1981). Keramik der fruhen Initialperiode aus Pandanche, Dpto. Cajamarca, Peru.Beitrage zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Archaologie 3: 363–389.
Kelly, I. (1980).Ceramic Sequence in Colima: Capacha, An Early Phase, Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, No. 37, Tucson.
Lanning, E. P. (1967).Peru Before the Incas, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Lathrap, D. W. (1962).Yarinacocha: Stratigraphic Excavations in the Peruvian Monta¯na, Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Lathrap, D. W. (1963). Possible affiliations of the Machalilla Complex of coastal Ecuador.American Antiquity 29: 239–241.
Lathrap, D. W. (1966). Relationships between Mesoamerica and the Andean areas. In Ekholm, G. F., and Willey, G. R. (eds.),Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 4. Archaeological Frontiers and External Connections, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 265–276.
Lathrap, D. W. (1970).The Upper Amazon, Thames and Hudson, London.
Lathrap, D. W. (1971). The tropical forest and the context of Chavín. In Benson, E. P. (ed.),Dumbarton Oaks Conference on Chavín, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, pp. 73–100.
Lathrap, D. W. (1973). The antiquity and importance of long distance trade relationships in the moist tropics of Pre-Columbian South America.World Archaeology 5: 170–186.
Lathrap, D. W. (1977). Our father the cayman, our mother the gourd: Spinden revisited or a unitary model for the emergence of agriculture in the New World. In Reed, C. A. (ed.),Origins of Agriculture, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 713–752.
Lathrap, D. W. (1982). Complex iconographic features shared by Olmec and Chavín and some speculations on their possible relationship. In Marcos, J. G. and P. Norton (eds.),Primer Simposio de Correlaciones Anthropológicas Andino-Mesoamericano, Escuela Politécnica del Litoral, Salinas, Ecuador, pp. 301–328.
Lathrap, D. W. (1987). The introduction of maize in Prehistoric North America: The view from Amazonia and the Santa Elena Peninsula. In Keegan, W. F. (ed.),Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper 7, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 345–371.
Lathrap, D. W., Collier, D., and Chandra, H. (1975).Ancient Ecuador: Culture, Clay, and Creativity, 3000-300 B.C., Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Lathrap, D. W., Marcos, J., and Zeidler, J. (1977). Real Alto: An ancient ceremonial center.Archaeology 30(1): 2–13.
Lathrap, D. W., Marcos, J., and Zeidler, J. (1986). Real Alto: Un centro ceremonial agro alfarero temprana (Valdivia). In Marcos, J. (ed.),Arqueología de la Costa Ecuatoriana: Nuevos Enfoques, Vol. 1, Escuela Politécnica del Litoral, Centro de Estudios Arqueológicos y Antropológicos, Guayaquil, Ecuador, pp. 51–84.
Lathrap, D. W., and Roys, L. (1963). The archaeology of the Cave of the Owls in the upper monta¯na of PerÚ.American Antiquity 29: 27–38.
Law, I. A., Housley, R. A., Hammond, N., and Hedges, R. E. M. (1991). Cuello: Resolving the chronology through direct dating of conserved and low-collagen bone by AMS.Radiocarbon 33: 303–315.
Legros, T., Rodriguez, C., and Pauly, C. (1988). Arqueología del Formativo Temprano en las llanuras del Caríbe Colombiano.Museo del Oro, Boletín 20(1): 131–132, Bogotá.
Lippi, R. D., Bird, R. McK., and Stemper, D. M. (1984). Maize recovered at La Ponga, an early Ecuadorian site.American Antiquity 49: 118–124.
Lowe, G. W. (1975). The Early Preclassic Barra phase of Altamira, Chiapas: A review with new data.Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation, 38, Provo, UT.
McEwan, G. F., and Dickson, D. B. (1978). Valdivia, Jomon fishermen, and the nature of the North Pacific: Some nautical problems with Meggers, Evans, and Estrada's (1965) transoceanic contact hypothesis.American Antiquity 43(4): 362–371.
MacNeish, R. S., Peterson, F. A. and Flannery, K. V. (1970).The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley, Vol. 3: Ceramics, University of Texas Press, Austin.
Marcus, J. (1983). The Espiridión complex and the origins of the Oaxacan Formative. In Flannery, K. V., and Marcus, J. (eds.),The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, Academic Press, New York, pp. 42–43.
Matsuzawa, T. (1978). The Formative site of Las Haldas, PerÚ: Architecture chronology.American Antiquity 43: 652–673.
Meggers, B. J. (1975). Application of the biological model of diversification to cultural distribution in tropical lowland South America.Biotropica 7: 141–161.
Meggers, B. J. (1987). El orígen transpacífico de la cerámica Valdivia: Una revaluación.Boletín del Museo Chile¯no de Arte Precolombino 2: 9–31.
Meggers, B. J. (1992). Jomon-Valdivia similarities: Convergence or contact?NEARA Journal 27: 23–22.
Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. (1962). The Machalilla culture: An Early Formative complex on the Ecuadorian coast.American Antiquity 28: 186–192.
Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. (1966). A transpacific contact in 3000 B.C.Scientific American 214: 28–35.
Meggers, B. J., and Evans, C. (1978). Lowland South America and the Antilles. In Jennings, J. D. (ed.),Ancient Native Americans, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, pp. 543–592.
Meggers, B. J., Evans, C., and Estrada, E. (1965). Early Formative period of coastal Ecuador: The Valdivia and Machalilla phases.Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 1, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Mejía Xesspe, T. (1978). Importancia prehistórica de la “Huaca Florida” en el Valle de Lima.III Congreso Peruano El Hombre y la Cultura Andina (Lima 1977), Actas y Trabajos 2: 493–520.
Myers, T. P. (1978). Formative Period interaction spheres in the Intermediate Area: Archaeology of Central America and adjacent South America. In Browman, D. L. (ed.),Advances in Andean Archaeology, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 203–234.
Norr, L. (1986). Archaeological site survey and burial mound excavations in the Río Naranjo/Bijagua Valley of the Guanacaste Cordillera.Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 14: 1–2.
Oyuela C., A. (1987). Dos sitios arqueológicos con cerámica desgrasante de fibra vegetal en la serranía de San Jacinto (Departamiento de Bolívar).Boletín de Arqueología, Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales 2(1): 5–26.
Oyuela C., A. (1990). New evidence of early ceramics in the New World. Paper presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas.
Oyuela C., A., and Rodriguez R., C. (1990). Shell midden formation. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference of the International Council for Archaeozoology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Patterson, T. (1985). The Huaca La Florida, Rimac Valley, Peru. In Donnan, C. (ed.),Early Ceremonial Architecture in the Andes, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC, pp. 59–69.
Patterson, T., and Moseley, M. E. (1968). Late Preceramic and Early Ceramic cultures of the central coast of Peru.¯Nawpa Pacha 6: 115–133.
Pearson, G. W., and Stuiver, M. (1993). High-precision bidecadal calibration of the radiocarbon time scale, 500-2500 B.C.Radiocarbon 35: 25–33.
Peterson, D. A. (1980). The introduction, use, and technology of fiber-tempered pottery in the southeastern United States. In Browman, D. (ed.),Early Native Americans, Mouton, The Hague, pp. 362–372.
Plazas, C., and Falchetti, A. M. (1986). Cerámica arcaica en las sábanas de San Marcos, Sucre.Boletín de Arqueología, Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas Nacionales 1(2): 16–23.
Pozorski, S., and Pozorski, T. (1990). Reexamining the critical Preceramic/Ceramic period transition: New data from coastal Peru.American Anthropologist 92: 481–491.
Ranere, A. J., and Hansell, P. (1978). Early subsistence patterns along the Pacific coast of central Panama. In Stark, B. L., and Voorhies, B. (eds.),Prehistoric Coastal Adaptations: The Economy of Maritime Middle America, Academic Press, New York, pp. 43–59.
Raymond, J. S., Oyuela, C. A., and Carmichael, P. (1991). A comparison of the earliest ceramic technologies of Ecuador and Colombia. Paper presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Reeder, R. (1978). The Sohn site, 23JA110, Jackson County, Missouri. Report submitted to the Missouri State Highway Commission, Jefferson City.
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. (1965a).Colombia, Praeger, New York.
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. (1965b). Excavaciones arqueológicas en Puerto Hormiga, Departamiento de Bolívar.Publicaciones de la Universidad de Los Andes, Antropología, 2, Bogotá.
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. (1985).MonsÚ: Un sitio arqueológico. Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura del Banco Popular, Bogotá.
Reid, K. C. (1980).Nebo Hill, Archaic Political Economy in the Riverine Midwest, Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. of Anthropology, University of Kansas, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
Reid, K. C. (1984). Fire and ice: New evidence for the production and preservation of Late Archaic fiber-tempered pottery in the middle-latitude lowlands.American Antiquity 49(1): 55–76.
Riddell, F., and Valdez, L. (1988). Hacha y la ocupacíon temprana de Acarí.Gaceta Arqueológica Andina 16: 6–10.
Rodriguez R., C. (1988). Las tradiciones alfareras tempranas en las llanuras del Caríbe Colombiano.Boletín de Arqueología, Fundación de Investigaciones Arqueológicas del Banco de la Republica 3(2): 26–40, Bogotá.
Rodriguez R., C. (1990). Otro conchal con cerámicas tempranas en la llanura de desborde del Bajo Río Magdalena (Canal del Dique). Paper presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Las Vegas.
Roosevelt, A. C., Houseley, R. A., Imazio da Silveira, M., Maranca, S., and Johnson, R. (1991). Eighth millennium pottery from a prehistoric shell midden in the Brazilian Amazon.Science 254: 1621–1624.
Rowe, J. H. (1967). An interpretation of radiocarbon measurements or archaeological samples from Peru. In Rowe, J. H., and Menzel, D. (eds.),Peruvian Archaeology: Selected Readings, Peek, Palo Alto, CA, pp. 16–30.
Russo, M., Purdy, B. A., Newson, L. A., and McBee, R. M. (1992). A reinterpretation of Late Archaic adaptations in central-east Florida: Grove's Orange Midden.Southeastern Archaeology 11: 95–108.
Sassaman, K. E. (1993).Early Pottery in the Southeast: Tradition and Innovation in Cooking Technology, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.
Sauer, C. O. (1952).Agricultural Origins and Dispersals, American Geographical Society, New York.
Schmits, L. J. (1978). The Coffey site: Environment and cultural adaptation at a Prairie-Plains Archaic site.Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 3: 69–185.
Schmits, L. J., and C. A. Wright, (1981). The Turner-Casey site (23JA35). In Schmits, L. J. (ed.),Little Blue Prehistory: Archaeological Investigations at Blue Springs and Longview Lakes, Jackson County, Missouri. Draft report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Kansas City District.
Sears, W. H. (1977). Seaborne contacts between early cultures in the lower southeastern United States and middle through South America. In Benson, E. P. (ed.),The Sea in the Pre-Columbian World, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collections, Washington, DC.
Skibo, J. M., Schiffer, M. B., and Reid, K. C. (1989). Organic-tempered pottery: An experimental study.American Antiquity 54(1): 122–146.
Simoes, M. F. (1981). Coletores-pescadores ceramistas do litoral do Salgado (Pará): Nota Preliminar.Boletim do Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Nova Serie 78: 1–31.
Snarskis, M. J. (1978).The Archaeology of the Central Atlantic Watershed of Costa Rica, Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.
Snarskis, M. J. (1984). Central America: The lower Caribbean. In Lange, F. W., and Stone, D. Z. (eds.),The Archaeology of Lower Central America, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 195–232.
Spinden, H. J. (1917). The origin and distribution of agriculture in America.Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Americanists, Washington, DC, pp. 269–276.
Stahl, P. (1984).Tropical Forest Cosmology: The Cultural Context of the Early Valdivia Occupations at Lorna Alta, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor.
Stoltman, J. B. (1966). New radiocarbon dates for Southeastern fiber-tempered pottery.American Antiquity 31: 872–874.
Strong, W. D., and Evans, C. (1952). Cultural stratigraphy in the VirÚ Valley, northern Peru: The Formative and Florescent epochs.Columbia University Studies in Archaeology and Ethnology 4.
Stuiver, M., and Pearson, G. W. (1993). High-precision bidecadal calibration of the radiocarbon time scale, A.D. 1950–500 B.C. and 2500-6000 B.C.Radiocarbon 35: 1–23.
Stuiver, M., and Reimer, P. (1993). Extended14C data base and revised CALIB 3.014C age calibration program.Radiocarbon 35: 215–230.
Tellenbach, M. (1981). Vobericht uber die erste Kampagne der Ausgrabung bei Montegrande im Jequetepeque-Tal, Nordperu.Beitrage zur Allegemeinen und Vergleichenden Archaologie 3: 415–435.
Terada, K. (1979).Excavations at La Pampa in the North Highlands of Peru, 1975, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
Terada, K., and Onuki, Y. (1982).Excavations at Huacaloma in the Cajamarca Valley, Peru, 1979, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
Terada, K., and Onuki, Y. (1988).Las Excavaciones en Cerro Blanco y Huacaloma, Cajamarca, Peru, 1985, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
Trinkley, M. B. (1980). A typology of Thom's Creek pottery for the South Carolina coast.South Carolina Antiquities 12: 1–35.
Trinkley, M. B. (1986).Indian and Freedmen Occupation at the Fish Haul Site (38BU805), Beaufort County, South Carolina, Research Series 7, Chicora Foundation, Columbia, SC.
Vaillant, G. C. (1934). The archaeological setting of the Playa de los Muertos culture.Maya Research 1(2): 87–100.
Verrill, A. H. (1918). Prehistoric mounds and relics of the northwest district of British Guiana.Timehri 5: 11–17.
Villalba O., M. (1988). Cotocollao: Una aldea Formativa del Valle de Quito.Miscelanea Antropológica Ecuatoriana, Serie Monográfica 2, Museos del Banco Central del Ecuador, Quito.
Willey, G. R. (1971).An Introduction to American Archaeology, Vol. II. South America, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs.
Willey, G. R., and McGimsey, C. R. (1954). The Monagrillo culture of Panama.Peabody Museum Papers, 54, Cambridge, MA.
Willey, G. R., and Phillips, P. (1958).Method and Theory in American Archaeology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Williams, D. (1981). Excavation of the Barabina shell mound North West District: An interim report.Archaeology and Anthropology 4: 13–38.
Wippern, A. M. (1987). Debate sobre MonsÚ.Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico, Banco de la RepÚblica 24(12): 84–87, Bogotá.
Witty, T. A., Jr. (1982). The Slough Creek, Two Dog and William Young sites, Council Grove Lake, Kansas.Kansas State Historical Society Anthropological Series 10.
Yamasaki, F., Hamada, T., and Fujiyama, C. (1966). Riken natural radiocarbon measurements II.Radiocarbon 8: 324–339.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hoopes, J.W. Ford revisited: A critical review of the chronology and relationships of the earliest ceramic complexes in the New World, 6000-1500 B.C.. J World Prehist 8, 1–49 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02221836
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02221836