Abstract
The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) is a popular clinical and research test that claims to measure key constructs in cogntive psychology such as repetition learning, serial position effects, semantic organization, intrusion, and proactive inteference. The psychometric characteristics of the CVLT are reviewed and related to the test's clinical utility. The utility of the CVLT is shown to be limited by its poor standardization and inlated norms. Further, the validity is limited because the CVLT uses multiple trials whereas the constructs it purports to the CVLT and guidelines for its clinical use. It concludes that if the limitations of the CVLT are recognized, it can still make a usefull contribution to the clinical assessment of verbal learning and memory.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.References
Bondi, M. W., Drake, A. I., Butters, N. M., and Griffith, T. (1993, February). Verbal memory impairments in alcoholics and polysubstance abusers with concurrent alcoholj abuse. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Galveston, TX.
Bondi, M. W., Monsch, A., Galasko, D., Butters, N., Salmon, D. P., and Delis, D. C. (1994). Precinical cognitive markers of dementia of the Alzheimer type.Neuropsychology 38: 374–384.
Brandt, J., Corwin, J., and Krafft, L. (1992)., Is verbal recognition really different in Huntington's and Alzheimer's disease?Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 14: 773–784.
Brandt, J., Folstein, S. E., and Folstein, M. F. (1988). Differential cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disewase.Annals of Neurology 35: 585–589.
Buschke, H., and Fuld, P. A. (1974). Evaluating storage, retention, and retrieval in disordered memory and learning.Neurology 24: 1019–1025.
Butters, N., Granholm, E., Salmon, D. P., and Grant, I. (1987). Episodic and semantic memory: A comparsion of amnesic and demented patients.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 9: 479–497.
Butters, N., Grant, I., Haxby, J., Judd, L. L., Martin, A., McClelland, J., Pequegnant, W., Schacter, D., and Stover, E. (1990). Assessment of AIDS-related cogntive changes: Recommend of the NIMH Workgroup on neuropsychological assessment approaches.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 12: 963–978.
Butters, N., Salmon, D. P., Cullum, C. M., Cairns, P., Tröster, A. I., Jacobs, D., Moss, M., and Cermak, L. S. (1988). Differentiation of amnestic and demented patients with the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2: 133–148.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors.Multivariate Behavioral Research 1: 245–276.
Comrey, A. L., and Lee, H. B. (1992).A First Course in Factor Analysis (2nd ed.), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Craik, F. I. M. (1984). Age difference in remembering. In Squire, L. R., and Butters, N. (Eds.),Neuropsychology of Memory, Guilford Press, New York.
Crosson, B., Cooper, P. V., Lincoln, R. K., Bauer, R. M., and Velozo, C. A. (1993). Relatioship between verbal memory and language performance after blunt head injury.The Clinical Neuropschologist 7: 250–267.
Crosson, B., Novack, T. A., Trenerry, M. R., and Craig, P. L. (1988). California Verbal Learnin Test (CVLT) performance in severely hear-injured and neurologically normal adult males.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropscychology 10: 754–768.
Crosson, B., Novack, T. A., Trenerry, M. R.., and Craig, P. L. (1989). Differentiation of verbal memory deficits in blunt head injury using the recognition trial of the California Verbal Learning Test: An exploratory study.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 3: 29–44.
Crosson, B., Sartor, K. J., Jenny, A. B., Nabors, N. A., and Moberg, P. J. (1993). Increased intrustions during verbal recall in traumatic and nontraumatic lesions of the temporal lobe.Neuropsychology 7: 193–208.
Crosson, J. R., and Wiens, A. N. (1994). Copparison of the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning (AVLT) and California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) in a sample of normal subjects.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 16: 75–90.
Cullum, C. M., Filley, C. M., & Kozora, E. (1995). Episodic memory function in advanced aging and early Alzheimer's disease.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 1: 100–103.
Cullum, C. M., Kuck, J., Delis, D. C., Heaton, R., Zisook, S., and Grant, I. (1989, February).Verbal learning characteristics of Schizophrenia. Peper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Orlando, FL.
Davis, H. P., Cohen, A., Gandy, M., Colombo, P.., VanDusseldorp, G., Simolke, N., and Romano, J. (1990). Lexical priming deficits as a function of age.Behavioral Neuroscience 104: 288–297.
D'Elia, L. F., Boone, K. B., & Mitrushina, A. M. (1995).Handbook of Normative Data for Neuropsychological Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Delis, D. C., Cullum, C. M., Butters, N., and Cairns, P. (1988). Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised and California Verbal Learning Test: Convergence and divergence.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2: 188–196.
Delis, D. C., Freeland, J., Kramer, J. H., and Kaplan, E. (1988). Integrating clinical assessme with cognitive neuroscience: Construct validation of the California Verbal Learning Test.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56: 123–130.
Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., and Ober, B. A. (1987).The California Verbal Learning Test: Research Edition, Adult Version, The Psychological Corporation. San Antonio, TX.
Delis, D. C., Kramer, J. H., Kaplan, E., and Ober, B. A. (1993).The California Verbal Learning Test for Children, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
Delis, D. C., Massman, P. J., Butters, N., Cermak, L. S., and Kramer, J. H. (1991). Profiles of demented and amnesic patients of the California Verbal Learning Test: Implications for the assessment of memory disorders.Psychological Assessment 3: 19–26.5.
Delis, D. C., McKee, R., Massman, P. J., Kramer, J., Kaplan, E., and Gettmen, D. (1991). Alternate form of the California Verbal Learning Test: Development and reliability.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 5: 154–162.
Diamond, B. J., and De Luca, J. (1993, November). Performance of anterior communicating artery amnesics and multiple sclerosis patients on the California Verbal Learing Test. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Academy of Neuropsychology, Pheonix, AZ.
Elwood, R. W. (1991). The Wechseler Memory Scale-Reviesed: Psychometric characteristics and clinical application.Neuropsychology Review 2: 179–201.
Elwood, R. W. (1993). Clinical discriminations and neuropsychological tests: An appeal to Bayes' theorem.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 7: 224–233.
Frankel, F., and Cole, M. (1971). Measures of category clusstering in free recall.Psychological Bulletin 76: 39–44.
Fridlund, A. J., & Delis, D. C. (1987).CVLT administrationa and scoring system (version 1.2) [compouter program], The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
Fuld, P. A., Katzman, R., Davies, P., and Terry, R. D. (1981). Intrusions as a sign of Alzheime dementia: Chemical and pathological verification.Annals of Neurology 11: 155–159.
Gansler, D. A., McGrath, N., Kaplan, E., Moczyssin, N., and Norton, J. (1995, February). The utility of the Dementia Version of the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-D) in a traumatic brain injury population. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Seattle, WA.
Glutting, J. J., McDermott, P. A., and Stanley, J. C. (1987). Resolving difference among methods of establishing confidence limits for test scores.Educational and Psychological Measurement 47: 607–614.
Haut, M. W., and Shutty, M. S. (1992). Patterns of verbal learning after closed head injury.Neuropsychology 6: 51–58.
Heaton, R. K. (1993).WCST: Computer Version-2 Research Edition. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL.
Heinrichs, R. W. (1994). Pertormance of test of diencephalic-hippocampal verbal memory function in schizophrenia, Korsakoffs syndrome and personality disorder.Schizophrenia Research 13: 127–132.
Heinrichs, R. W., & Awad, A. G. (1993). Neurocognitive subtypes of chronic schizophrenia.Schizophrenia Research 9: 49–48.
Heinrichs, R. W., and Bury, A. S. (1991, February)., Verbal learning in schirzophrenia: Evidence of a selective deficit in implicit memory. Paper Presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, San Antonio, TX.
Hermann, B. P., Wyler, A. R., Bush, A. J., and Tabatabai, F. R. (1992). Differential effects of left and righ anterior temporal lobectomy on verbal learning and memory performance.Epilepsia 33: 289–297.
Hermann, B. P., Wyler, A. R., Richey, E. T., and Rea, J. M. (1987). Memory function and verbal learning bility in patients with complex partial seizures of temporal lobe orgin.Epilepsia 28: 547–554.
Hermann, B. P., Wyler, A. R., and Somes. G. (1993, February). Memory loss following left anterior temporal lobectomy is associated with hippocampal pathology and not extend of hippocampal resection. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Galveston, TX.
Hermann, B. P., Wyler, A. R., Steenman, H., and Richey, E. (1988). The relationship between language function and verbal memory performance in patients with complex partial seizures.Cortex 24: 245–253.
Hess, J. L., Colliver, J. A., Antonacci, N. J., and Sutton, M. L. (1991, February). Informed vs. uninformed delayed recall following interference on the California Verbal Learning Test Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsycholoigcal Society, San Antonio, TX.
Hill, D. D., Stoudemire, A., Morris, R., Martino-Saltzman, D., and Markwalter, H. R. (1993). Similarties and differences in memory deficits in patients with primary dementia and depression-related cognitive dysfunction.Journal of Neuropsychiatry 5: 277–282.
Ivnik, R. J., Malec, J. F., Tangalos, E. G., Peterson, R. C., Kokmen, E., and Swenson, M. R. (1992). Mayo's older Americans normative studies: Updated AVLT norms for ages 56 to 94.The Clinical Neuropscyologists 6: (Suppl.): 49–82.
Johnson, S. A., Sadek, J. R., Paulsen, J. S., Bulters, N., Salmon, D. P., Delis, D. C., and Swenson, M. R. (1994), Feebruary),Verbal memory in late stage Hunttington's and Alzheimer's disease OH.
Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis.Educational and Psychological Measurement 20: 141–151.
Kaplan, E. F., Goodglass, H., and Weintraub, S. (1983).The Boston Naming Test (2nd ed.), Lea & Febiger Philadelphia, PA.
Kaplan, R. F., Meadows, M. F., Vincent, I. C., Logigian, F. I., and Steere, A. C. (1992). Memory impairment and depression in patients with lyme encephalopathy: Comparison with fibromyalgia and nonpsychotically depressed patients.Neurology 42: 1263–1267.
Kaufman, A. S., and Kaufman, N. (1994).K-SNAP: Kaufman Short Neuropsycholgical Test Procedure, American Guidance Service, Circle Pines, MN.
Kessler, H. R., Cohen, R. A., Lauer, K. & Kausch, D. F. (1992). The relationship between disability and memory dysfunction in multiple sclerosis.International Journal of Neuroscience 62: 17–34.
Kibby, M. Y., Schmitter-Edgecome, M. E., and Long C. J. (1994, February). The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) as a measure of memory functioning in severely head-injured adults and neurologically normal controls. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Academy of Neuropsychology, Orlando, FL.
Köhler, S. (1994). Quantitative characterization of verbal learning deficits in patients with Alzheimer's disease.Journal of Clinical and Experimental neuropsychology 16: 749–753.
Kozora, E., Cullum, C. M., Smernoff, E. N., Allensworth, C. A. (1992, February). Qualitative features of story and word list recall in healthy older adults: Intrusion errors and serial position effects. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, San Diego, CA.
Kramer, J. H., Blusewicz, M. J., and Preston, K. A. (1989). The premature aging hypothesis: Old before its time.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57: 257–262.
Kramer, J. H., and Delis, D. C. (1991). Interference effects on the California Verbal Learning Test.Psychological Assessment 3: 299–302.
Kramer, J. H., Delis, D. C., Blusewicz, M. J., Brandt, J., Ober, B. A., and Strauss, M. (1988). Verbal errors in Alzheimer's and Huntington's dementias.Developmental Neuropsychology 4: 1–15.
Kramer, J. H., Delis, D. C., and Daniel, M. H. (1988). Sex differences in verbal learning.Journal of Clinical Psychology 44: 907–915.
Kramer, J. H., Levin, B. E., Brandt, J., and Delis, D. C. (1989). Differentiation of Alzheimer' Huntington's, and Parkinson's disease patients on the basis of verbal learning characteristics.Neurology 3: 111–120.
Lezak, M. (1995).Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press, New York.
Libon, D. J., Mattson, R. E., Glosser, G., Kaplan, E., Malamut, B. L., Sands, L., Swenson, R., and Cloud, B. S. (1993). A nine word dementia versiion of the California Verbal Learning Test. Manuscript submitted for publication.
McCarthy, M., Ferris, S. H., Clark, E., and Crook, T. (1981). Acquisition and retention of categorized material in normal aging and senile dementia.Experimental Aging Research 7: 127–135.
Malec, J. F., Ivnik, R. J., and Smith, G. (1993). Neuropsychology and normal aging: The clinician's perspective. In Parks, r. W., Zec, R. F., and Wilson, R. S. (Eds.),Neuropsychology of Alzheimer's Disease and Other dementias (pp. 3–80), Oxford University Press, New York.
Massman, P. J., Delis, D. C., Butters, N., Levin, B. E., and Salmon, D. P. (1990). Are all subcortical dementias alike?: Verbal learning and memory in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseased patients.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 12: 729–744.
Massman, P. J., Delis, D. C., Butters, N., Dupont, R. M., and Gillin, J. C. (1992). The subcortical dysfunction hypothesis of memory: Neuropsychological validation in a subgroup of patients.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 14: 687–706.
Massman, P. J., Delis, D. C., and Butters, N. (1993). Does impaired primacy recall equal impaired long-term storage? Serial position effects in Huntington's disease and Alzheimer's disease.Developmental Neuropsychology 9: 1–15.
Matthews, C. G. (1992). The neuropsychology of epilepsy: An overview.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 14: 133–143.
McCaffrey, R. J., Cousins, J. P., Westervelt, H. J., Martynowicz, M., Remick, S. C., Szebenyi, S., Wagle, W. A., Bottomley, P. A., Hardy, C. J., and Haase, R. F. (1995). Practice effects with the NIMH AIDS Abbreviated Neuropsychological Battery.Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 10: 241–250.
Millis, S. R., and Ricker, J. H. (1994a, February). The California Verbal Learning Test in the detection of feigned memory impairment. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Cincinnati, OH.
Millis, S. R., and Ricker, J. H. (1994b, June). Verbal learning impairment in adult civilians following penetrating missile wounds: Performance patterns on the California Verbal Learning Test. Paper presented at the European Conference of the International Neuropsychological Society, Angers, France.
Mittenberg, W., and Motta, S. (1993). Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on memory and learning.Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 8: 477–483.
Morris, J. C., Heyman, A., Mohs, R. C., Hughes, J. P., van Belle, G., Fillenbaum, G., Mellits, E. D., and Clark, C. (1989). The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part 1. Clinical and neuropsychological assessment of Alzheimer's disease.Neurology 39: 1159–1165.
Naugle, R. I., Cullum, C. M., and Bigler, E. D. (1990). Evaluation of intellectual and memory function among dementia patients who were intellectually superior.The Clinical Neuropsychology 4: 355–374.
Novack, T. A., Kofoed, B. A., and Crosson, B. (1995). Sequential performance on the California Verbal Learning Test following traumatic brain injury.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 9: 38–43.
Numan, B., and Sweet, J. J. (1992, November). Use of the California Verbal Learning Test to detect proactive interference in a traumatically brain injured sample. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Academy of Neuropsychology, Pittsburgh, PA.
Otto, M. W., Bruder, g. E., Fava, M., Delis, D. C., Quitkin, F. M., and Rosenbaum, J. F. (1994). Norins for depressed patients for the California Verbal Learning Test: Associations with depression severity and self-report of cognitive difficulties.Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 9: 81–88.
Paulsen, J. S., Heaton, R. K., Sadek, J. R., Perry, W., Delis, D. C., Braff, D., Kuck, J., Zisook, S., and Jeste, D. V. (1995). The nature of learning and memory impairments in schizophrenia.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 1: 88–89.
Peavy, G., Jacobs, D., Salmon, D. P., Butters, N., Delis, D. C., Taylor, M., Massman, P., Stout, J., Heindel, W. C., Kirson, D., Atkinson, J. H., Chandler, J. L., and Grant, I. (1994). Verbal memory performance of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: Evidence of subcortical dysfunction.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 16: 508–523.
Penney, C. G. (1989). Modality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory.Memory and Cognition 17: 398–422.
Perrine, K., Devinsky, O., Donofrio, N., and Luciano, D. J. (1994, February). Relationship of the California Verbal Learning Test to other measures of memory language and frontal lobe functions. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Cincinnati, OH.
Pope, D. (1986). The California Verbal Learning Test: Preliminary investigation of its clinical usefulness with older adults.Dissertation Abstracts International 47: 1738B.
Powell, D. H., Kaplan, E. F., Whitla, D., Weintraub, S., Catlin, R., & Funkenstein, H. S. (1993).Microcog. Assessment of Cognitive Functioning, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
The Psychological Corporation. (1994).Tests and Products for Psychological Assessment. Author, San Antonio, TX.
Randolph, C., Gold, J. M., Kozora, E., Cullum, C. M., Hermann, B. P. and Wyler, A. R. (1994). Estimating memory function: Disparity of Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised and California Verbal Learning Test indices in clinical and normal samples.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 8: 99–108.
Reddon, J. R. (1992).PCA—PACK: Principal components analysis package (version 2.7) [computer program]. Author, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Reite, M., Cullum, C. M., Stocker, J., and Kozora, E. (1993). Neuropsychological test performan and MEG-based brain lateralization: Sex differences.Brain Research Bulletin 32: 325–328
Retzlaff, P., Morris, G. L., and Duff, K. (1993, February). Evoked-potential correlates of the California Verbal Learning Test. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Galveston, TX.
Rey, A. (1964).L'examen Clinique en Psychologie Presses Universitaries de France, Paris.
Saykin, A. J., Janssen, R. S., Sprehn, C. C., Kaplan, E., Spira, T. J., and Weller, P. (1988). Neuropsychological dysfunction in HIV infection: Characterization of a lymphadenopathy cohort.International Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology 10: 81–95.
Saykin, A. J., Shtasel, D. L., Gur, R. E., Kester, D. B., Mozley, L. H., Stafiniak, P., Gur, R. C. (1994). Neuropsychological deficits in neuroleptic naive patients with first-episode schizophrenia.Archives of General Psychiatry 51: 124–131.
Schear, J. M., and Craft, R. B. (1989a), Examination of the concurrent validity of the California Verbal Learning Test.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 3: 162–168.
Schear, J. M., and Craft, R. B. (1989b, February). A replication of the factor structure of the California Verbal Learning Test. Paper presented at the meeting of the International neuropsychological Society, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Schuell, T. J. (1969). Clustering and organization in free recall.Psychological Bulletin 72: 353–374.
Scott, T. M., Duff, K., Moczynski, N., Norton, J., and Gansler, D. A. (1995, February). The utility of the Dementia Version of the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLt-D) in discriminating between demented and non-demented groups Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Seattle, WA.
Simon, E., Leach, L., Winocur, G., and Moscovitch, M. (1994). Intact primary memory in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: Indices from the California Verbal Learning Test.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 16: 414–422.
Stallings, G. A., Boake, C., & Sherer, M. (1993, February). Correspondence between the California Verbal Learning Test and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in closed-head injury patients. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Galveston, TX.
Stout, J. C., Bondi, M. W., Jernigan, T. L., Archibald, S. L., Salmon, D. P., and Butters, N. (1995, February). Brain morphometric predictors of California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) performance in Alzheimer's disease. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society. Seattle, WA.
Taylor, A. E., Saint-Cyr, J. A., and Lang, A. E. (1990). Memory and learning in Parkinson's disease: Evidence for a “frontal lobe syndrome”.Brain and Cognition 13: 211–232.
Tindall, A. G., and Bradley, J. R. (1991, February). Relationships between California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Information and Vocabulary subtests in a college sample screened for neuromedical risk factors. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, San Antonio, TX.
Trueblood, W. (1994). Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of malingered and other invalid WAIS-R and clinical memory data.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 16: 597–607.
Trueblood, W., and Schmidt, M. (1993). Malingering and other validity considerations in the neuropsychological evaluation of mild head injury.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 5: 578–590.
Tulving, E. (1962). Subjective organization in free recall of “unrelated” words.Psychological Review 69: 344–354.
Vakil, E., and Blachstein, H. (1993). Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test: Structure analysis.Journal of Clinical Psychology 49: 883–890.
Vanderploeg, R. D., and Eichler, S. R. (1990, August). Performance of the severely traumatic brain injured on the CVLT. Paper presented at the meeting the American Psychological Association, Boston, MA.
Vanderploeg, R. D., Schinka, J. A., and Retzlaff, P. (1994). Relationships between measures of auditory verbal learning and executive functioning.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 16: 243–252.
Vangel, S. J., Lichtenberg, P. A., & Ross, T. P. (1995). Clinical utility of the Logical Memory subtests and the relationship of demographic factors to test performance.Journal of Clinical Geropsychology 1: 67–77.
Wechsler, D. (1987).Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
Welsh, K. A., Butters, N., Hughes, J. P., Mohs, R. C., and Heymand, A. (1989). Detection and staging of dementia in Alzheimer's disease.Neurology 49: 448–452.
Welte, P. O. (1993). Indices of verbal learning and memory deficits after right hemisphere stroke.Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 74: 631–636.
Wiens, A. N., Tindall, A. G., and Crossen, J. R. (1994). California Verbal Learning Test: A normative study.The Clinical Neuropsychologist 8: 75–90.
Wilde, M. C., and Boake, C. (1993, October). Factorial validity of the California Verbal Learning Test in head injury. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Academy of Neuropsychology, Phoenix, AZ.
Wilde, M. C., Boake, C., and Sherer, M. (1994, February). Recognition versus recall discrepancies in closed head injury. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Cincinnati, OH.
Wilde, M. C., Boake, C., and Sherer (1995, February). A reevaluation of memory deficit subtypes in closed head injury using the California Verbal Learning Test. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Seattle, WA.
Wolfe, N., Linn, R., Babikian, V. L., Knoefel, J. E., and Albert, M. L., (1990). Frontal systems impairment following multiple lacunar infarcts.Archives of Neurology 47: 129–132.
Yehuda, R., Keefe, R. S. E., Harvey, P. D., Levengood, R. A., Gerber, D. K., Geni, J., and Siever, L. J. (1995). Learning and memory in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry 152: 137–139.
Zappalá, G., Measo, G., Romani, L., & Merlin, P. (1992, July). The California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT): Preliminary report on the development of the Italian version. Paper presented at the European conference of the International Neuropsychological Society, Durham, United Kingdom.
Zappalá, G., and Trexler, L. E. (1992). Quantitative and qualitative aspects of memory performance after minor head injury.Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 7: 145–154.
Zec, R. F. (1993). Neuropsychological functioning in Alzheimer's disease. In Parks, R. W., Zec, R. F., and Wilson, R. S. (Eds.),Neuropsychology of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias (pp. 3–80). Oxford University Press, New York.
Zwick, W. R., and Velicer, W. F. (1986). Comparison of five rules for determining the number of components to retain.Psychological Bulletin 99: 432–443.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Elwood, R.W. The California Verbal Learning Test: Psychometric characteristics and clinical application. Neuropsychol Rev 5, 173–201 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02214761
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02214761