Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Developmental dyspraxia and developmental coordination disorder

  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article discusses the role developmental dyspraxia plays in developmental coordination disorder (DCD), based upon a review of literature on apraxia, developmental dyspraxia, and DCD. Apraxia and dyspraxia have often been equated with DCD. However, it is argued that apraxia and dyspraxia primarily refer to the problems of motor sequencing and selection, which not all children with DCD exhibit. The author proposes to distinguish developmental dyspraxia from DCD. Other issues discussed include the assessment, etiology, and treatment of developmental dyspraxia and DCD, and the relationship between DCD and learning disabilities. A research agenda is offered regarding future directions to overcome current limitation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

References

  • Arnheim, D. D., and Sinclair, W. A. (1979). The Clumsy Child: a Program of Motor Therapy, C. V. Mosby, Saint Louis, MO.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994).Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Author, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, A. J. (1979).Sensory Integration and the Child, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, A. J. (1980).Southern California Sensory Integration Tests, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, A. J., and Mailloux, Z. K. (1984a).Praxis on Verbal Command Test, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, A. J., and Mailloux, Z. K. (1984b).Sequencing Praxis Test, Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, J. A., Mailoux, Z. K., and Wendler, C. L. W. (1987). Developmental dyspraxia: Is it aunitary function?The Occupational Therapy Journal of Research 7: 93–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bender, L. A. (1957). Specific reading disability as a maturational lag.Bulletin of the Orton Society 7: 9–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benton, A. (1989). Constructional apraxia. In Boller, F., and Grafman, J. (eds.),Handbook of Neuropsychology (Vol. 2). Elsevier Science Publishers, BV, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergès, J., and Lézine, I. (1977)Test d'Imitation de Gestes. Masson, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brain, W. R. (1965).Speech Disorder: Aphasia, Apraxia and Agnosia. Butterworth, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruininks, R. H. (1978).The Buininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, American Guidance Service, Circle Pines, MN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, A. W., and Davis, W. E. (1992). Assessing balance in adapted physical education: Fundamental concepts and applications.Adapted Physical Quarterly 9: 14–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cermak, S. (1985). Developmental dyspraxia. In Roy, E. A. (ed.),Neuropsychological Studies of Apraxia and Related Disorders, Elsevier Science Publishers, BV, North-Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, K. E., Cermak, S. A., and Drake, C. (1983). Differentiation of praxis among children.The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 37: 466–473.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cratty, B. J. (1994).Clumsy Child Syndromes. Harwood Academic Publishers, Longhorn, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cratty, B. J., and Gibson, S. (1985). Bewgungsplanung (Praxie) und Impulsivität bei Kindern im Kindergartenalter [Motor planning and impulsivity in kindergarten children].Motorik 8: 51–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cratty, B. J., and Samoy, T. (1984). Ein Vergleich praxischer Verhaltensweisen bei jungen Kindern [A comparison of praxic behaviors in young children].Motorik 7: 52–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Critchley, M. (1985). Specific developmental dyslexia. In Frederiks J. A. M. (ed.),Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Vol. 1), 105–121. North-Holland, Elsevier Science Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Critchley, M. and Critchley, E. A. (1978).Dyslexia Defined, (pp. 89–93). Heinemann Medical Books, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawdy, S. C. (1981). Pediatric neuropsychology: Caring for the developmentally dyspraxic child.Clinical Neuropsychology 3: 30–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B. (1984). Developmental dyspraxia: The clumsy child. In Levine, M. D., and Paul, S. (eds.),Middle Childhood: Development and Dysfunction, University Park Press, Baltimore, MD, pp. 245–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B. (1985). Motor coordination in dyslexic children: Theoretical and clinical implications. In Duffy, F. H., and Geschwind, N. (eds.),Dyslexia: A Neuroscientific Approach to Clinical Evaluation, Little, Brown and Company, Boston, pp. 187–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deuel, R., and Doar, B. P. (1992). Developmental manual dyspraxia: A lesson in mind and brain.Journal of Child Neurology 7: 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, D. (1991). Praxis and sequencing skills in children with sensorimotor dysfunction.Developmental Neuropsychology 7: 197–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleishman, W. A. (1964).The Structure and Measurement of Physical Fitness, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geschwind, N. (1975). The apraxias: Neural mechanisms of disorders of learned movement.American Scientist 63: 188–195.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gschwend, V. G. (1988). Neurophysiologische Grundlagen der Bewegungstherapien [Neurophysiological bases of movement therapy].Der Kinderazt 19: 1589–1597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gubbay, S. S. (1975).The Clumsy Child—A Study of Developmental Apraxic and Agnosic Ataxia. W. B. Saunders, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gubbay, S. S. (1978). The management of developmental apraxia.Developmental Medicine and Child Development 20: 643–646.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gubbay, S. S., Ellis, E., Walton, J. N., and Court, S. D. M. (1965). The clumsy children: A study of apraxiac and agonosic defects in 21 children.Brain 88: 295–312.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, D. M. B. (1988). The children with DCD,British Medical Journal 296: 375–376.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hecaen, H., and Assal, G. (1970). A comparison of construction deficits following right and left hemispheric lesions.Neuropsychologia 8: 289–304.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hecaen, H., and Albert, H. L. (1978).Human Neuropsychology, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hecaen, H., and Rondot, P. (1985). Apraxia as a disorder of a system of sings. In Roy, E. A. (ed.),Neuropsychological Studies of Apraxia and Related Disorders, Elsevier Science Publishers BV, North-Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S. E. (1986). Problems of motor development: Some practical issues. In Keogh, B. K. (ed.),Advances in Special Education (Vol. 5), 187–218.

  • Henderson, S. E., and Hall, D. (1982). Concomitants of clumsiness in young school children.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 24: 448–460.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S. E., and Sugden, D. (1992).Movement Assessment Battery for Children. Psychological Cooperation, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiscock, M., and Kinsbourne, M. (1978). Ontogeny of cerebral dominance: Evidence from time-sharing asymmetry in children.Developmental Psychology 14: 321–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoare, D. G. (1994). Subtypes of developmental coordination disorder.Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 11: 158–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulme, C., and Lord, R. (1986). The children with DCD: A review of recent research.Child: Care, Health and Development 12: 257–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, O., Short, H., and Crawford, J. (1987). Poorly coordinated children: A survey of 95 cases.Child: Care, Health and Development 13: 361–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ispanovic-Radojkovic, V., Meljac, C., and Bergès, J. (1982). Dyspraxique, figuratif et sémiotique. [Dyspraxic children, figurative and semiotic aspects].Neuropsychiatrie de l'Engance 30: 657–670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jongmans, M., Henderson, S., de Vries, L., and Dubowitz, L. (1993). Duration of periventricular densities in preterm infants and neurological outcome at 6 years of age.Archives of Disease in Childhood 69: 9–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kershner, J. R., and Stringer, R. W. (1991). Effects of reading and writing on cerebral laterality in good readers and children with dyslexia.Journal of Learning Disabilities 24: 560–567.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsbourne, M. (1973). Minimal brain dysfunction as a neurodevelopmental lag.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 205: 268–273.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsbourne, M. (1985). Learning disabilities. In Frederiks, J. A. M. (ed.),Handbook of Clinical Neurology (Vol. 2) (46): Neurobehavioral Disorder, Elsevier Science Publishers BV, North-Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsbourne, M. (1989). Neurological theories of dyslexia. In French, J. H., Harel, S., and Casaer, P. (eds.),Child Neurology and Developmental Disabilities, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co, Baltimore, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsbourne, M., and Hiscock, M. (1983). Asymmetries of dual-task performance. In Hellige, J. (ed.), Cerebral hemisphere asymmetry: Method, theory and application, Academic Press, 2, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsbourne, M., Rufo, D. T., Gamzu, E., Palmer, R. L., and Berliner, A. K. (1991). Neuropsychological deficits in adults with dyslexia.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 33: 763–775.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knuckey, N. W., Apsimon, T. T., and Gubbay, S. S. (1983). Computerized axial tomography in clumsy children with developmental apraxia and agnosia.Brain and Development 5: 14–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, E. M., and Sherrill C. (1992). Motor sequencing of boys with learning disabilities: Modeling and verbal rehearsal strategies.Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 9: 261–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krus, P. H., Bruininks, R. H., and Robertson, G. (1981). Structure of motor abilities in children.Perceptual and Motor Skills 52: 119–129.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kull-Sadacharam, K. (1990). Evaluation der Praxie im Kindergartenalter [Evaluation of praxis in kindergarten age].Beschäftigungstherapie und Rehabilitation 29: 403–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larkin, D., and Hoare, D. (1991).Out of Step, Active Life Foundation, Nedlands, WA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laszlo, J. I., and Bairstow, P. J. (1985).Perceptual-Motor Behaviour: Developmental Assessment and Therapy. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laszlo, J. I., Bairstow, P. J., Bartrip, J. and Rolfe, U. T. (1988). Clumsiness or perceptualmotor dysfunction? In A. M. Colley and J. R. Beech (eds.),Cognition and Action in Skilled Behaviour, Elsevier Science Publishers BV, North-Holland, pp. 293–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laszlo, J. I. and Sainsbury, K. M. (1993). Perceptual-motor development and prevention of clumsiness.Psychological Research 55: 167–174.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lecours, A. R., Nespoulous, J., and Desaulniers, P. (1986). Standard teaching on apraxia. In Nespoulous, J., Perron, P., and Lecours, A. R. (eds.),The Biological Foundations of Gestures: Motor and Semiotic Aspects, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lehmkuhl, G. (1984). Ideomotorishe und ideatorishe Apraxie im Kindesalter [Ideomotor and ideatory apraxia in childhood].Acta Paedopsychiatica 50: 97–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesny, I. A. (1980). Developmental dyspraxia-dysgnosia as a cause of congenital children's clumsiness.No To Hattatsu [Brain and Development] 2: 69–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesny, I. A., Rostokova, R., Syrovatka, A., and Tresohlava, Z. (1983). Developmental dyspraxia-dysgnosia as a cause of congenital children's clumsiness.Neurologie et Psychiatrie 21: 160–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liepmann, H. (1920). Apraxia [Apraxia].Ergebnisse der Gesamten Medizin 1: 516–543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liepmann, H., and Maas, O. (1907). Fall von linksseitiger Agraphie und Apraxie bei rechtseitiger Lahmung [Case of left-sided agraphia and apraxia with right-sided paresis].Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie 10: 214–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Losse, A., Henderson, S. E., Elliman, D., Hall, D., Kinight, E., and Jongmans, M. (1991). Clumsiness in children—Do they grow out of it? A 10 year follow-up study.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 33: 55–68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundy-Ekman, L., Ivry, R., Keele, S., and Woollacott, M. (1991). Timing and force control deficits in clumsy children.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 3: 367–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1966).Higher Cortical Functions in Man, Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyytinen, H., and Ahonen, T. (1988). Developmental motor problems in children: A 6-year longitudinal study.Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 10: 57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyytinen, H., and Ahonen, T. (1989). Motor precursors of learning disabilities. In Bakker, D. J., and van der Vlugt, H. (eds.),Learning Disabilities, Volume 1: Neuropsychological Correlates and Treatment, Swets and Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, pp. 35–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. S. and Barron, D. W. (1960). Apraxia of gait: A clinico-physiological study.Brain 83: 261–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Probst, B., Heider, B., Cammann, G., and Engel, H. (1980). Erfahrungen mit dem Dyspraxie-Test (nach Lesny) [Experience of the dyspraxia test of Lesny].Psychiatrie, Neurologie und medizinische Psychologie 32: 46–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyahara, M. (1994). Subtypes of students with learning disabilities based upon gross motor functions,Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 11: 368–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, E. A., Cermak, S. A., and O'Brien, V. (1990). The relationship between form and space perception, constructional abilities, and clumsiness in children.The American Journal of Occupational Therapy 44: 623–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. T. (1925). “Word-blindness” in school children.Archives of Neurology 14: 582–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. T. (1928). Specific reading disability-Strephosymbolia.American Medical Association Journal 90: 1095–1099.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orton, S. T. (1937).Reading, Writing, and Speech Problems in Children and Selected Papers. Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poeck, K. (1982). The two types of motor apraxia.Archives Italiennes de Biologie 120: 361–369.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poeck, K. (1985). Clues to the nature of disruptions to limb praxis. In Roy, E. A. (ed.),Neuropsychological Studies of Apraxia and Related Disorders, Elsevier Science Publishers, BV, North-Holland, pp. 99–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poeck, K. (1986). The clinical examination for motor apraxia.Neuropsychologia 24: 129–134.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polatajko, H. J., Macnab, J. J., Anstett B., Malloy-Miller, T., Murphy, K. and Noh, S. (1995). A clinical trial of the process-oriented treatment approach for children with developmental co-ordination disorder.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 37: 310–319.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prechtl, H. F. R. (1987). Choreiform movements. In Tupper, D. E. (ed.),Soft Neurological Signs, Grune and Stratton, Orlando, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rarick, G. L., and Dobbins, D. A. (1975). A motor performance typology of boys and girls in the age range 6 to 10 years.Journal of Motor Behavior 7: 37–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, P., Gillberg, C., Waldenstrom, E., and Svenson, B. (1983). Perceptual, motor, and attentional deficits in seven-year-old children: Neurological and neurodevelopmental aspects.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 25: 315–333.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond Smyth, T., and Glencross, D. J. (1986). Information processing deficits in the children with DCD.Australian Journal of Psychology 38: 13–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regehr, S. M., and Kaplan, B. J. (1988). Reading disability with motor problems may be an inherited subtype.Pediatrics 82: 204–210.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Revie, G., and Larkin, D. (1993). Task-specific intervention with children reduces movement problems.Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 10: 29–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudel, R. G. (1985). The definition of dyslexia: Language and motor deficits. In Duffy, F. H., and Feschwind, N. (eds.),Dyslexia: A Neuroscientific Approach to Clinical Evaluation. Little, Brown and Company, Boston, pp. 33–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seaman, J. A. and DePauw, K. P. (1982).The New Adapted Physical Education. A Developmental Approach, Mayfield Publishing Company, Palo Alto, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherrill, C. (1993).Adapted Physical Education and Recreation. A Multidisciplinary Approach, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shoemaker, M. M., Hijlkema M. G., and Kalverboer, A. K. (1994). Physiotherapy for clumsy children an evaluation study.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 36: 143–155.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., Skodol, A. E., Williams, J. B. W., and First, M. B. (eds.). (1994).DSM-VI Casebook, American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugden, D. A., and Wann, C. (1987). The assessment of motor impairment in children with moderate learning disabilities.British Journal of Educational Psychology 57: 225–236.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sugden, D. A., and Wright, H. C. (1995). Developmental coordination disorder (DCD); Identification, prevalence and nature. InProceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Adapted Physical Activity-Quality of Life Through Adapted Physical Activity and Sport: A Lifespan Concept. Oslo and Beitostølen, Norway, p. 123.

  • Taft, L. T., and Barowsky, E. I. (1989). Clumsy child,Pediatrics in Review 10: 247–253.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M. J. (1990). Marker variables for early identification of physically awkward children. In Doll-Tepper, G., Dahmas, C., Doll, B., and von Selzam, H. (eds.),Adapted Physical Activities—An interdisciplinary Approach, Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 379–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Meulen, J. H. P., Denier van der Gon, J. J., Gielen, C. C. A. M., and Willemse, J. (1991). Visuomotor performance of normal and the children with DCD I: Fast goal-directed arm-movements with and without visual feedback,Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 33: 40–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walton, J. N., Ellis, E., and Court, S. D. M. (1962). Clumsy children: Developmental apraxia and agnosia.Brain 85: 603–612.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, P. H., Gunnoe, C., and Cohen, C. (1983). Associated movements as a measure of developmental age.Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 25: 417–429.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (1992).The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidlines, World Health Organization, Geneva.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (1993).The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research. Churchill Livingstone, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, H. C., and Sugden, D. A. (1995). Management of children aged 6–9 years with developmental coordination disorder. inProceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Adapted Physical Activity-Quality of Life Through Adapted Physical Activity and Sport: A Lifespan Concept. Oslo and Beitostølen, Norway, p. 125.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, Klinikum Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany

    Isabelle Möbs

  2. Movement Development Clinic, School of Physical Education, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand

    Motohide Miyahara

Authors
  1. Motohide Miyahara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Isabelle Möbs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Miyahara, M., Möbs, I. Developmental dyspraxia and developmental coordination disorder. Neuropsychol Rev 5, 245–268 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02214648

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02214648

Key Words

Search

Navigation