Abstract
References continue to be a required part of selection systems in employment settings and higher education. Previous research on references has often involved atheoretical validation studies. We propose that the reference message itself is but one step in a communication process and that letter tone, content, and structure can be analyzed to determine their contribution to process outcomes. A sample of 85 reference statements was used to demonstrate potential antecedents, measures, and outcomes suggested by this conceptualization. Antecedents including letter characteristics were significantly related to readers' evaluations and accept or reject recommendations. Results from regression analyses indicated initial support for measures of letter tone, content, and structure in predicting readers' evaluations. A communication-based framework is presented and implications for research and practice are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aamodt, M. G., Bryan, D. A., & Whitcomb, A. J. (1993). Predicting performance with letters of recommendation.Public Personnel Management, 22, 81–90.
American Society for Personnel Administration (1983).ASPA-BNA Survey no. 45: Employee selection procedures. Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
Baxter, J. C., Brock, B., Hill, P. C., & Rozelle, R. M. (1981). Letters of recommendation: A question of value.Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 296–301.
Bryan, D. A. 1989.Differences in trait interpretations between black and white profesionals when evaluating letters of recommendation. Paper presented at the 10th Annual Industrial/Organizational Behavior Graduate Student Convention, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Ceci, S. J., & Peters, D. (1984). Letters of reference: A naturalistic study of the effects of confidentiality.American Psychologist, 39, 29–31.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983).Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cowan, G., & Kasen, J. H. (1984). Form of reference: Sex differences in letters of recommendation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 636–645.
Daehnert, C., & Carter, J. D. (1987). The prediction of success in a clinical psychology graduate program.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 47, 1113–1125.
Federici, L., & Schuerger, J. (1974). Prediction of success in an applied M.A. psychology program.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34, 945–952.
Gatewood, R. D., & Feild, H. S. (1990).Human resource selection (2nd ed.), Chicago, IL: Dryden.
Heneman, III, H. G., & Heneman, R. (1994).Staffing organizations. Homewood, IL: Austen Press-Irwin.
Ilgen, D. R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M. S. (1979). Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations.Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 349–371.
Knouse, S. B. (1983). The letter of recommendation: Specificity and favorability of information.Personnel Psychology, 36, 331–341.
Landy, F. J. (1989).Psychology of work behavior (4th ed.) Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Landy, F. J., & Farr, J. L. (1983).The measurement of work performance: Methods, theory, and applications. New York: Academic Press.
Mehrabian, A. (1965). Communication length as an index of communication attitude.Psychological Reports, 17, 519–522.
Muchinsky, P. M. (1979). The use of reference reports in personnel selection: A review and evaluation.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 52, 287–297.
Pamaro, G. P. (1988). Minimizing the danger of giving references.Personnel Journal, 67(8), 93–96.
Peres, S. H., & Garcia, J. R. (1962). Validity and dimensions of descriptive adjectives used in reference letters for engineering applicants.Personnel Psychology, 15, 279–286.
Range, L. M., Menyhert, A., Walsh, M. L., Hardin, K. N., Ellis, J. B., & Craddick, R. (1991). Letters of recommendation: Perspectives, recommendations, and ethics.Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22, 389–392.
Rawls, J. R., Rawls, D. J., & Harrison, C. W. (1969). An investigation of success predictors in graduate school in psychology.The Journal of Psychology, 72, 125–129.
Reilly, R. R., & Chao, G. T. (1982). Validity and fairness of some alternative employee selection procedures.Personnel Psychology, 35, 1–62.
Rim, Y. (1976). How reliable are letters of recommendation?Journal of Higher Education, 47, 437–445.
Ryan, A. M., & Lasek, M. (1991). Negligent hiring and defamation: Areas of liability related to pre-employment inquiries.Personnel Psychology, 44, 293–319.
Schneider, B., & Schmitt, N. (1986).Staffing organizations (2nd ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Semin, G. R., & Fielder, K. (1988). The cognitive functions of linguistic categories in describing persons: Social cognition and language.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 558–568.
Shaffer, D. R., & Tomarelli, M. (1981). Bias in the ivory tower: An unintended consequence of the Buckley amendment for graduate admissions?Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 7–11.
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc. (1992).Graduate training programs in industrial/organizational psychology and related fields. Arlington Heights, IL: Author.
Stake, J. E., Walker, E. F., & Speno, M. V. (1981). The relationship of sex and academic performance to quality of recommendations for graduate school.Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 515–522.
Von der Embse, T. J., & Wyse, R. E. (1985). Those reference letters: How useful are they?Personnel, 62(1), 42–46.
Whitcomb, A. J. (1989).Letters of recommendation and performance: Perceived and statistical abilities of traits to predict graduate student success. Paper presented at the 10th Annual Industrial/Organizational Behavior Graduate Student Convention, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Whitcomb, A. J., & Bryan, D. A. (1988).Reliability and validity of an alternative method for evaluating letters of recommendation. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Industrial/Organizational Behavior Graduate Student Convention, Toledo, Ohio.
Wiens, A. N., Jackson, R. H., Manaugh, T. S., & Matarazzo, J. D. (1969). Communication length as an index of communicator attitude: A replication.Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 264–266.
Zeleznik, C., Hojat, M., & Veloski, J. (1983). Levels of recommendation for students and academic performance in medical school.Psychological Reports, 52, 851–858.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Portions of this research were presented at the 99th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, California, August, 1991.
The authors wish to thank the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Loher, B.T., Hazer, J.T., Tsai, A. et al. Letters of reference: A process approach. J Bus Psychol 11, 339–355 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02195898
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02195898