References
Alzheimer A (1895) Die arteriosklerotische Atrophie des Gehirns. Allg Z Psychiat 51:809–811 Transl.: Arteriosclerotic brain atrophy Internat J Geriat Psychiat (1991) 6:129–130
Alzheimer A (1898) Neuere Arbeiten über die Dementia senilis und die auf atheromatöser Gefässerkrankung basierenden Hirnkrankheiten. Monatschr Psychiat Neurol 3:101–115 Transl.: Recent studies on dementia senilis and brain disorders caused by atheromatous vascular disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord (1991) 5:257–264
Alzheimer A (1907) Über eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Hirnrinde. Allg Zeitschr Psychiat Psych Gerichtl Med 64:146–148 Transl.: About a peculiar disease of the cerebral cortex. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord (1987) 1:7–8
Alzheimer A (1911) Über eigenartige Krankheitsfälle des späteren Alters. Zeitschr Ges Neurol Psychiat 4:356–358 Transl.: On certain peculiar diseases of old age. History of Psychiatry (1991) 2:71–101
Arriagada PV, Growdon JH, Hedley-White ET, Hyman BT (1992) Neurofibrillary tangles but not senile plaques parallel duration and severity of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 42:631–639
Arriagada PV, Marslaff BA, Hyman BT (1992) Distribution of Alzheimer-type pathologic changes in non-demented elderly individuals matches the pattern in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 42:1681–1688
Baldwin B, Förstl H (1993) “Pick's disease” — 101 years on: still there, but in need of reform. Brit J Psychiat 163:100–104
Ball MJ (1977) Neuronal loss, neurofibrillary tangles and granulovascuolar degeneration in the hippocampus with aging and dementia: a quantitative study. Acta Neuropathol 37:111–118
Ball MJ (1978) Topographic distribution of neurofibrillary tangles and granulovascuolar degeneration in hippocampal cortex of aging and demented patients: a quantitative study. Acta Neuropathol 42:73–80
Bennett DA, Cochran ES, Saper CB, Leverenz JB, Gilley DW, Wislon RS (1993) Pathological changes in frontal cortex from biopsy to autopsy in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 14: 589–596
Berg L, McKeel DW, Miller P, Baty J, Morris JC (1993) Neuropathological indexes of Alzheimer's disease in demented and nondemented persons aged 80 years and older. Arch Neurol 50: 349–358
Berthier ML, Leiguarda R, Starkstein SE, Sevlevar G, Taratuto AL (1991) Alzheimer's disease in a patient with posterior cortical atrophy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 54:1110–1111
Blessed G, Tomlinson BE, Roth M (1968) The association between quantitative measures of dementia and of senile change in the cerebral grey matter of elderly subjects. Brit J Psychiat 114:797–811
Boller F, Lopez O, Moossy J (1989) Diagnosis of dementia: clinicopathologic correlations. Neurology 36:76–79
Bondareff W, Mountjoy C (1986) Number of neurons in locus coeruleus in demented and non-demented patients: rapid estimation and correlated parameters. Neurobiol Aging 7:297–300
Bondareff W, Mountjoy CQ, Roth M, Rossor MN, Iversen, L, Reynolds GP (1987) Age and histopathological heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: evidence for subtypes. Arch Gen Psychiat 44:412–417
Bondareff W, Mountjoy CQ, Wischik CM, Hauser DL, La Bree LD, Roth M (1993) Evidence of subtypes of Alzheimer's disease and implications for etiology. Arch Gen Psychiat 50:350–356
Bowen DM, Spillane JA, Curzon G, Meier-Ruge W, White P, Goodhardt MJ, Iwangoff P, Davison AN (1979) Accelerated aging or selective neuronal loss as an important cause of dementia? Lancet I:11–14
Brun A, Gustafson L (1991) Psychopathology and frontal lobe involvement in organic dementia. In: Iqbal K, McLachlan DRC, Winblad B, Wisniewski HM (Hrsg.): Alzheimer's Disease: Basic Mechanisms, Diagnosis and Therapeutic Strategies. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester
Burkhardt CR, Filley CM, Kleinschmidt-deMasters BK, de la Monte S, Norenberg MD, Schneck SA (1988) Diffuse Lewybody disease and progressive dementia. Neurology 38:1520–1528
Burns A, Luthert P, Levy R, Jacoby R, Lantos P (1990) Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Brit Med J 301:1026
Byrne EJ, Lennox G, Lowe J, Godwin-Austen RB (1989) Diffuse Lewy-body disease: clinical features in 15 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 52:709–717
Chui HC, Tierney M, Zarrow C, Lewin A, Sobel E, Perlmutter LS (1993) Neuropathologic diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease —interrater reliability in the assessment of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Alz Dis Assoc Dis 7:48–54
Clark AW, White III CL, Manz HJ, Parhad IM, Curry B, Whitehouse PJ, Lehmann J, Coyle JT (1986) Primary degenerative dementia without Alzheimer pathology. Can J Neurol Sci 13:462:470
Crystal H, Dickson D, Fuld P, Masur D, Scott R, Mehler M, Masdeu J, Kanas C, Aranson M, Wolfson L (1988) Clinico-pathologic studies in dementia: non-demented subjects with pathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 38:1682–1687
Crystal HA, Horoupian DS, Katzman R, Jotkowitz S (1982) Biopsy proven Alzheimer disease presenting as a right parietal lobe syndrome. Ann Neurol 12:186–188
Crystal HA, Dickson DW, Lizardi JE, Davies P, Wolfson LI (1990) Antemortem diagnosis of diffuse Lewy body dementia. Neurology 40:1523–1528
Dayan AD (1970) Quantitative histological studies on the aged human brain. II. Senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in senile dementia (with an appendix on their occurrence in cases of carcinoma). Acta Neuropathol 16:95–102
DeKosky ST, Scheff SW (1990) Synapse loss in frontal cortex biopsies in Alzheimer's disease: correlation with cognitive severity. Ann Neurol 27:457–464
DeKosky ST, Harbaugh RE, Schmitt FA, Bakay RAE, Chui HC, Knopman DS, et al (1993) Cortical biopsy — Alzheimer's disease: diagnostic accuracy and neurochemical, neuropathological, and cognitive correlations. Ann Neurol 32:625–632
Delaere P, Duyckaerts C, He Y, Piette F, Hauw JJ (1991) Subtypes and differential laminar distributions of βA4 deposits in Alzheimer's disease: relationship with the intellectual status of 26 cases. Acta Neuropathol 81:328–335
Dickson DW, Crystal H, Mattiace LA, Kress Y, Schwagerl A, Ksiezak-Reding H, Davies P, Yen S-H C (1989) Diffuse Lewy body disease: light and electron microscopic immunochemistry of senile plaques. Acta Neuropathol 78:572–584
Doebler JA, Markesbery WR, Anthony A, Rhoads RE (1987) Neuronal RNA in relation to neuronal loss and neurofibrillary pathology in the hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease. J Neuropath Exp Neurol 46:28–39
Duyckaerts C, Delaère P, Poulain V, Brion J-P, Hauw J-J (1988) Does amyloid precede paired helical filaments in the senile plaque? A study of 15 cases with graded intellectual status in aging and Alzheimer disese. Neurosci Lett 91:354–359
Duyckaerts C, Delaere P, Hauw JJ, et al. (1990) Rating the lesions in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type: concordance between laboratories. A European multi-center study under the auspices of EURAGE. J Neurol Sci 97:295–323
Faden MAJAI, Townsend JJ (1976) Myoclonus in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 33:178–280
Fischer P, Simanyi M, Danielczyk W (1990) Depression in dementia of the Alzheimer type and in multi-infarct dementia. Am J Psychiat 147:1484–1487
Fischer P, Lassmann H (1991) Neuropathologische und biochemische Grundlagen des Morbus Alzheimer. TW Neurologie Psychiatrie 5:516–530
Fischer P, Lassmann H, Jellinger K, Simanyi M, Bancher C, Travniced-Marterer A, Gatterer G, Danielczyk W (1991) Die Demenz vom Alzheimer Typ — eine klinische Längsschnitt-studie mit quantitativer Neuropathologie. Wiener Med Wochenschr 141:455–461
Fischer P, Danielczyk W, Jellinger, et al. (1991) Die Differential-diagnose der Demenzerkrankungen. Eine prospektive klinische Untersuchung mit neuropathologischer Diagnosestellung. Nervenarzt 62:408–414
Förstl H, Burns A, Levy R, Cairns N, Luthert P, Lantos P (1992) Neurologic signs in Alzheimer's disease: results of a prospective clinical and neuropathologic study Archives of Neurology 49:1038–1042
Förstl H, Burns A, Luthert P, Cairns N, Lantos P, Levy R (1992) Clinical and neuropathological correlates of depression in Alzheimer's disease. Psychol Med 22:877–884
Förstl H, Burns A, Levy R, Cairns N (1993) Neuropathological basis for drawing disability (constructional apraxia) in Alzheimer's disease. Psychological Medicine 23:623–629
Förstl H, Burns A, Luthert P, Cairns N, Levy R (1993) The lewybody variant of Alzheimer's disease: clinical and pathological findings. British Journal of Psychiatry 162:385–392
Förstl H, Sattel H, Bahro M (1993) Alzheimer's disease — clinical features. International Review of Psychiatry 5:327–349
Fuld PA, Katzman R, Davies P, Terry RD (1981) Intrusions as a sign of Alzheimer dementia: chemical and pathological verification. Ann Neurol 11:155–159
Gellerstedt N (1993) Zur Kenntnis der Hirnveränderungen bei der normalen Altersinvolution. Upsala Lälareförenings Förhandlingar: 38:193–408
Gibb WRG, Luthert PJ, Janota I, Lantos PL (1989) Cortical Lewy body dementia: clinical features and classification. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 52:185–192
Hansen LA, DeTeresa R, Davies P, Terry RD (1988) Neocortical morphometry, lesion counts, and choline acetyltransferase level in the age spectrum of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 38:48–55
Hansen LA, Salmon D, Galasko D, Masliah E, Katzman R, De-Teresa R, Thal L, Pay MM, Hofstetter R, Klauber M, Rice V, Butters N, Alford M (1990) The Lewy body variant of Alzheimer's disease: a clinical and pathologic entity. Neurology 40:1–8
Hart J, Gordon B (1990) Early onset dementia and extrapyramidal disease: clinicopathological variant of Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker or Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 53:932–934
Haxby JV, Grady CL, Koss E, Horwitz B, Shapiro M, Friedland RP, Rapoport SI (1988) Heterogeneous anterior posterior metabolic patterns in dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neurology 38: 1853–1863
Heilig CW, Knopman DS, Mastri AR, Frey II W (1985) Dementia without Alzheimer pathology. Neurology 35:762–765
Hof PR, Bouras C, Constantinidis J, Morrison JH (1989) Balint's syndrome in Alzheimer's disease: specific disruption of the occipito-parietal visual pathway. Brain Res 493:368–375
Hubbard BM, Fenton GW, Anderson JM (1990) A quantitative histological study of early clinical and preclinical Alzheimer's disease. Neuropath Appl Neurobiol 16:111–121
Hulette CM, Earl NL, Crain BJ (1992) Evaluation of cerebral biopsies for the diagnosis of dementia. Arch Neurol 49:28–31
Jagust WJ, Davies P, Tiller-Borcich J, Reed BR (1990) Focal Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 40:14–19
Jamada M, Mehraein P (1968) Verteilungsmuster der senilen Veränderungen im Gehirn. Arch Psychiat Zeitschr Ges Neurol 211:308–324
Jobst KA, Smith AD, Barker CS, Wear A, King EM, Smith A, Anslow PA, Molyneux AJ, Shepstone BJ, Soper N, Holmes KA, Robinson JR, Hope RA, Oppenheimer C, Brockbank K, McDonald B (1992) Association of atrophy of the medial temporal lobe with reduced cerebral blood flow in the posterior parietotemporal cortex in patients with a clinical and pathological diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat 55:190–194
Khachaturian ZS (1985) Diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 42:1097–1105
Kukull WA, Larsen EB, Feifler BV, Lampe TH, Yerby M, Hughes J (1990) Interrater reliability of Alzheimer's disease diagnosis. Neurology 40:257–260
Mann UM, Mohr E, Gearing M, Chase TN (1990) Heterogeneity in Alzheimer's disease: progression rate segregated by distinct neuropsychological and cerebral metabolic profiles. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 55:959–965
Martin EM, Wilson RS, Penn RD, Fox JH, Clasen RA, Savoy SM (1987) Cortical biopsy results in Alzheimer's disease: correlation with cognitive deficits. Neurology 37:1201–1204
McGonigal G, Thomas B, McQuade C, Whalley LJ (1992) Clinical diagnosis of presenile Alzheimer's disease: a novel approach. Internat J Geriat Psychiat 7:751–756
McKee AC, Kosik KS, Kowall NW (1991) Neuritic pathology and dementia in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 30:157–165
McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM (1984) Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA work group under the auspices of the Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 34:939–944
Mirra SS, Heyman A, McKeel D, Sumi SM, Crain BJ, Brownlee LM, Vogel FS, Hughes JP, van Belle G, Berg L and participating CERAD neuropathologists (1991) The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's disease (CERAD). II. Standardisation of the neuropathologic assessment of AD. Neurology 41:479–486
Mirra SS, Hart MN, Terry B (1993) Making the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: a primer for the practising neuropathologist. Arch Pathol Laborat Med 117:132–144
Mölsä PK, Sako E, Paljärvi L, Rinne JO, Rinne UK (1987) Alzheimer's disease: neuropathological correlates of cognitive and motor disorders. Acta Neurol Scand 75:376–384
Morris JC, Cole M, Banker BQ, Wright D (1984) Hereditary dysphasic dementia and the Pick-Alzheimer spectrum. Ann Neurol 16:455–466
Morris JC, Berg L, Fulling K, et al. (1987) Validation of clinical diagnostic criteria in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Ann Neurol 22:112
Morris JC, McKeel DW, Fulling K, Torack RM, Berg L (1988) Validation of clinical diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 24:17–22
Morris JC, McKeel DW, Storandt M, Rubin EH, Price JL, Grant EA, Ball MJ, Berg L (1991) Very mild Alzheimer's disease: informant based clinical, psychometric and pathologic distinction from normal aging. Neurology 41:469–479
Mountjoy CQ, Roth M, Evans NJR, Evans HM (1983) Cortical neuronal counts in normal elderly controls and demented patients. Neurobiol Aging 4:1–11
Paulus W, Bancher C, Jellinger K (1992) Interrater reliability in the neuropathologic diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 42:329–332
Perry RH, Irving D, Blessed G, Fairburn A, Perry EK (1990) Senile dementia of the Lewy body type: a clinically and neuropathologically distinct form of Lewy body dementia in the elderly. J Neurol Sci 95:119–139
Pogacar S, Williams RS (1984) Alzheimer's disease presenting as slowly progressive aphasia. Rhode Island Med J 67:181–185 (zitiert nach Poeck and Luzzatti, 1988)
Risse SC, Rasking MA, Nochlin D, Sumi SM, Lampe TH, Bird TD, Cubberley L, Peskind ER (1990) Neuropathological findings in patients with clinical diagnoses of probable Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiat 147:168–172
Roman GC, Tatemichi TK, Erkinjuntti T, Cummings JL, Masdeu J, Garcia JH et al. (1993) Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Neurology 43:250–260
Roth M, Tym E, Mountjoy C, Huppert F, Hendrie H, Verma S, Goddard R (1986) CAMDEX: a standardized instrument for the diagnosis of mental disorder in the elderly with special reference to the early detection of dementia. Brit J Psychiat 149: 698–709
Samuel WA, Henderson VW, Miller CA (1991) Severity of dementia in Alzheimer disease and neurofibrillary tangles in multiple brain regions. Alz Dis Associ Dis 5:1–11
Simchowicz T (1911) Histologische Studien über die senile Demenz. In: Histologische und histopathologische Arbeiten über die Grosshirnrinde mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der pathologischen Anatomie der Geisteskranken. Nissl F, Alzheimer A (eds.). Jena, Gustav Fischer Veerlag, pp 267–443
Terry RD, Peck A, DeTeresa R, Schechter R, Horoupian DS (1981) Some morphometric aspects of the brain in senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Ann Neurol 10:184–192
Terry RD, Hansen LA, DeTeresa R, Davies P, Tobias H, Katzman R (1987) Senile dementia of the Alzheimer type without neocortical neurofibrillary tangles. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 46: 262–268
Terry RD, Masliah E, Salmon DP, Butters N, DeTeresa R, Hill R, Hansen LA, Katzman R (1991) Physical Basis of Cognitive Alterations in Alzheimer's disease: synapse loss is the major correlate of cognitive impairment. Ann Neurol 30:572–580
Tierney MC, Fisher RH, Lewis AJ, Zorzitto ML, Snow WG, Reid DW, Nieuwstraten P (1988) The NINCDS-ADRDA work group criteria for the clinical diagnosis of probable Alzheimer's disease: a clinico-pathologic study of 57 cases. Neurology 38:359–364
Uyematsu S (1923) On the pathology of senile psychosis: the differential significance of Redlich-Fischer's miliary plaques. J Nerv Ment Dis 57:1–25; 131–156; 237–260
Weiler R, Lassmann H, Fischer P, Jellinger K, Winkler H (1990) A high ratio of chromogranin A to synaptin/synaptophysin is a common feature of brains in Alzheimer and Pick disease. FEBS letters 263:337–339
Wilcock GK, Esiri MM (1982) Plaques, tangles and dementia. J Neurol Sci 56:343–356
Zhan S-S, Beyreuther K, Schmitt HP (1993) Quantitative assessment of the synaptophysin immuno-reactivity of the cortical neuropil in various neurodegenerative disorders with dementia. Dementia 4:66–74
Zubenko GS, Moossy J (1988) Major depression in primary dementia: clinical and neuropathologic correlates. Arch Neurol 45:1182–1186
Zweig RM, Ross CA, Hedreen JC, Steele C, Cardillo JE, Whitehouse PJ, Folstein MF, Price DL (1988) The neuropathology of aminergic nuclei in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Neurol 24:233–242
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Förstl, H., Fischer, P. Diagnostic confirmation, severity, and subtypes of Alzheimer's disease. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Nuerosci 244, 252–260 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02190378
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02190378