Skip to main content
Log in

Thoughts on the processes that maintain local species diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi

  • Microbial Population Dynamic
  • Published:
Plant and Soil Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Ectomycorrhizal fungi exhibit high diversity even in small monoculture forests. Roughly 20 to 35 species typically occupy such sites. Explanations for this diversity can be based on resource partitioning, disturbance, competition, or interaction with other organisms. Mycorrhizal fungi compete for two general classes of resources: host-derived carbon and soil or detritus derived mineral nutrients. Both types of resources are arrayed in space (e.g., soil depth, distance from tree) and time (e.g., season, host successional series). Some species seem to be partitioned in space and time at these scales, but the question of how widespread these patterns are remains largely unanswered. Mineral resources are distributed in discrete substrates in soil, litter, and within other soil microorganisms; the biochemical diversity exhibited by fungi may translate into differences in access to these resources among species. Small-scale natural disturbances that sever roots, mix soil horizons and litter layers, or change local pH and nutrient availability, are likely to create additional habitats for ectomycorrhizal fungi. Evidence from fruiting patterns and differences in colonization strategies suggest that such disturbances may be important for establishment of some species. Competitive replacement networks among species have the theoretical potential to increase diversity. The frequency of species replacements, observed co-infections of ectomycorrhizal fungi on single host roots, and high rates of rootlet turn-over all suggest that competition is important, but whether it plays a creative role in maintaining diversity remains to be demonstrated. Other organisms could be important in the maintenance of diversity, if they effect competition among mycorrhizal fungi. Bacteria and soil invertebrates are the most likely groups for such interactions. Technological advances in root observation and PCR methods for indentification of mycorrhizae make many of these theories testable.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abuzinadah R A and Read D J 1986 The role of proteins in the nitrogen nutrition of ectomycorrhizal plants. I. Utilization of peptides and proteins by ectomycorrhizal fungi. New Phytol. 103, 481–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agerer R 1990 Studies on ectomycorrhizae. 24. Ectomycorrhizae ofChroogomphus helveticus andC. rutilus (Gomphidiaceae, Basidiomyetes) and their relationship to those ofSuillus andRhizopogon. Nova Hedwigia 50, 1–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong R A 1976 Fugitive species: experiments with fungi and some theoretical considerations. Ecology 57, 53–963.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antibus R K, Croxdale J G, Miller O K and Linkins A E 1981 Ectomycorrhizal fungi ofSalix rotundifolia III. Resynthesized mycorrhizal complexes and their surface phosphatase activities. Can. J. Bot. 59, 2458–2456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barron G L 1988 Microcolonies of bacteria as a nutrient source for lignicolous and other fungi. Can. J. Bot. 66, 2505–2510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell E A and Janzen D H 1971 Medical and ecological consideration of L-dopa and 5-HTP in seeds. Nature 299, 136–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berbee M L and Taylor J W 1993 Dating of the evolutionary radiations of the true fungi. Can. J. Bot. 71, 1114–1127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bills G F, Holtzmann G I and Miller O KJr 1986 Comparison of ectomycorrhizal-basidiomycete communities in red spruce versus northern hardwood forests of West Virginia. Can. J. Bot. 64, 760–768.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen G D and Theodorou C 1979 Interactions between bacteria and ectomycorrhizal fungi. Soil Biol. Biochem. 11, 119–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruns T D 1982 Insect mycophagy in the Boletales: fungivore diversity and the mushroom habitat.In Fungus Insect Relationships: Perspectives in Ecology and Evolution. Eds. Q Wheeler and M Blackwell. pp 91–129. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruns T D and Gardes M 1993 Molecular tools for the identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi: taxon-specific oligonucleotide probes for suilloid fungi. Mol. Ecol. 2, 233–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss L W and Jackson J B C 1979 Competitive networks: nontransitive competitive relationships in cryptic coral reef environments. Am. Nat. 113, 223–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell B A 1991 Fatty acid esterase production by ectomycorrhizal fungi. Mycologia 83, 233–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellano M A and Molina R 1989 The biological component: nursery pests and mycorrhizae.In The Container Tree Nursery Manual. Vol. 5. Eds. T D Landis, R W Tinus, S E McDonald and J P Barnett. pp 101–167. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cibula W G and Ovrebo C L 1988 Mycosociological studies of mycorrhizal fungi in two loblolly pine plots in Mississippi and some relationships with remote sensing.In Remote Sensing for Resource Inventory, Planning and Monitoring. Proceedings of the 2nd Forest Service Remote Sensing Application conference, Ed. J D Greer, pp 268–307. Am. Soc. Photogram. Rem. Sens., Falls Church, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Colpaert J V, Van Assche J A and Luijtens K 1992 The growth of the extramatrical mycelium of ectomycorrhizal fungi and the growth response ofPinus sylvestris L. New Phytol. 120, 127–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell J H 1978 Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs: high diversity of trees and corals is maintained only in a nonequilibrium state. Science 199, 1307–1310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooke R C and Rayner A D M 1984 Ecology of saprobic fungi. Longman, London. 415p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlberg A and Stenlid J 1990 Population structure and dynamics inSuillus bovinus as indicated by spatial distribution of clones. New Phytol. 115, 487–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danielson R M 1984 Ectomycorrhizal associations of jack pine in northeastern Alberta. Can. J. Bot. 62, 932–939.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon J W, Donaldson S J and Last F T 1983 Sequences and interactions of mycorrhizal fungi on birch. Plant and Soil 71, 257–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon J W and Fleming L V 1992 Interactions of ectomycorrhizal fungi.In Mycorrhizal Functioning an Integrative Plant-Fungal Process. Ed. M F Allen. pp 249–300. Chapman and Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dighton J, Poskitt J M and Howard D M 1986 Changes in occurrence of basidiomycete fruit bodies during forest stand development: with special reference to mycorrhizal species. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 87, 163–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dighton J, Thomas E D and Latter P M 1987 Interactions between tree roots, mycorrhizas, a saprophytic fungus and the decomposition of organic substrates in a microcosm. Biol. Fert. Soils 4, 145–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duchesne L C, Peterson R L and Ellis B E 1988 Pine root exudate stimulates the synthesis of antifungal compounds by the ectomycorrhizal fungusPaxillus involutus. New Phytol. 108, 471–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finlay R D, Frostegård Å and Sonnerfeldt A-M 1992 Utilization of organic and inorganic nitrogen sources by ectomycorrhizal fungi in pure culture and in symbiosis withPinus contorta Doug. ex Loud. New Phytol. 120, 105–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming L V 1983 Succession of mycorrhizal fungi on birch: infection of seedlings planted around mature trees. Plant and Soil 71, 263–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming L V 1984 Effects of soil trenching and coring on the formation of ectomycorrhizas on birch seedlings grown around mature trees. New Phytol. 98, 143–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming L V 1985 Experimental study of sequences of ectomycorrhizal fungi on birch (Betula sp) seedling root systems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 17, 591–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming L V, Deacon J W and Last F W 1986 Ectomycorrhizal succession in a Scottish birch wood.In Physiological and Genetical Aspects of Mycorrhizae. Eds. V Gianinazzi-Pearson and S Gianinazzi, pp 259–264. INRA, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fogel R 1985 Roots as primary producers in below-ground ecosystems.In Ecological Interactions in Soil, Plants, Microbes, and Animals. Eds. A H Fitter, A Atkinson, D J Read and M B Usher. pp 23–36. Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford E D, Mason P A and Pelham J 1980 Spatial patterns of sporophore distribution around a young birch tree in three successive years. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 75, 287–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox F M 1983 Role of basidiospores as inocula of mycorrhizal fungi of birch. Plant rand Soil 71, 269–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fries N and Swedjemark G 198 Sporophagy in Hymenomycetes. Exp. Mycol. 9, 74–79.

  • Garbaye J and Bowen G D 1989 Stimulation of ectomycorrhizal infection ofPinus radiata by some microorganisms associated with the mantle of ectomycorrhizas. New Phytol. 112, 383–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garbaye J and Duponnois R 1992 Specificity and function of mycorrhization helper bacteria (MHB) associated withPseudotsuga menziesii-Laccaria laccata symbiosis. Symbiosis 14, 335–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardes M and Bruns T D 1993 ITS primers with enhanced specificity for basidiomycetes—application to the identification of mycorrhizae and rusts. Mol. Ecol. 2, 113–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardes M, White T J, Fortin J, Bruns T D and Taylor J W 1991 Identification of indigenous and introduced symbiotic fungi in ectomycorrhizae by amplification of nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA. Can. J. Bot. 69, 180–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson F and Deacon J W 1988 Experimental study of establishment of ectomycorrhizas in different regions of birch root systems. Trans. Br Mycol. Soc. 91, 239–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson F and Deacon J W 1990 Establishment of ectomycorrhizas in asceptic culture: effects of glucose, nitrogen and phosphorus in relation to successions. Mycol. Res. 94, 166–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill M and Steglich W 1987 Pigments of fungi (Macromycetes).In Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products. Vol. 51. Eds. W Herz, H Grisebach, G W Kerby and C Tamm. pp 1–317. Springer Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giltrap N J 1982 Production of polyphenol oxidases by ectomycorrhizal fungi with special reference toLactarius spp. Trans. Br Mycol. Soc. 78, 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giltrap N J and Lewis D H 1982 Catabolite repression of the synthesis of pectin-degrading enzymesSuillus luteus (L. ex Fr.) 5. F. Gray andHeboloma oculatum Brunchet. New Phytol. 90, 485–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith N T and Barnett H L 1967 Mycoparasitism by basidiomycetes in culture. Mycologia 59, 149–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grub P J 1977 The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biol. Rev. 52, 107–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey A E, Jurgensen M F and Larsen M J 1978 Seasonal distribution of ectomycorrhizae in mature Douglas-fir/Larch forest soil in Western Montana. For. Sci. 24, 203–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendrick R L and Pregitzer K 51992 The demography of fine roots in a northern hardwood forest}. Ecology 73, 1094–1104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho I and Zak B 1979 Acid phosphatase activity of six ectomycorrhizal fungi. Can. J. Bot. 57, 1203–1205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbell S P 1979 Tree dispersion, abundance, and diversity in a tropical dry forest that trees are clumped, not spaced, alters concepts of the organization and dynamics. Science 203, 1299–1309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krywolap G N, Grand L F and Casida L E J 1964 Natural occurrence of an antibiotic n the mycorrhizal fungusCenococcum graniforme. Can. J. Microbiol. 10, 323–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Last F T, Mason P A, Wilson J and Deacon J W 1983 Fine roots and sheathing mycorrhizas: their formation, function and dynamics. Plant and Soil 71, 9–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundeberg G 1970 Utilisation of various nitrogen sources, in particular bound nitrogen, by mycorrhizal fungi. Stud. For. Suec. 79, 1–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lussenhop J and Fogel R 1993 Observing soil biota in situ. Geoderma 56, 25–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malajczuk N and Hingston F J 1981 Ectomycorrhizae associated with Jarrah. Aust. J. Bot. 29, 453–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks G C and Foster R C 1967 Succession of mycorrhizal associations on individual roots of radiata pine. Aust. For. 31, 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marx D H 1973 Mycorrhizae and feeder root diseases.In Ectomycorrhizae their Ecology and Physiology. Eds. G C Marks and T T Kozlowski. pp 351–382. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason P A, Last F T, Pelham J and Ingleby K 1982 Ecology of some fungi associated with an ageing stand of birches (Betula pendula andB. pubescens). For. Ecol. Manage. 4, 19–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason P A, Last F T, Wilson J, Deacon J W, Fleming L V and Fox F M 1987 Fruiting and successions of ectomycorrhizal fungi.In Fungal Infection of Plants: Symposium of the British Mycological Society. Eds. G F Pegg and P G Ayres. pp 253–268. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason P A, Wilson J, Last F T and Walker C 1983 The concept of succession in relation to the spread of sheathing mycorrhizal fungi on inoculated tree seedlings growing in unsterile soils. Plant and Soil 71, 247–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • McElhinney C and Mitchell D T 1993 Phosphatase activity of four ectomycorrhizal fungi found in a Sitka spruce-Japaneses larch plantation in Ireland. Mycol. Res. 97, 725–732.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller S L and Allen E B 1992 Mycorrhizae, nutrient translocation, and interactions between plants.In Mycorrhizal Functioning an Integrative Plant-Fungal Process. Ed. M F Allen. pp 301–332. Chapman and Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molina R, Massicotte H and Trappe J M 1992 Specificity phenomena in mycorrhizal symbioses: Community-Ecological consequences and practical implications.In Mycorrhizal Functioning an Integrative Plant-Fungal Process. Ed. M F Allen. pp 357–423. Chapman and Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murakami Y 1987 Spatial distribution ofRussula species inCastanopsis cuspidata forest. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 89, 187–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • newell K 1984 Interaction between two decomposer basidiomycetes and a collembolan under Sitka spruce: distribution, abundance and selective grazing. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 227–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newell K 1984 Interaction between two decomposer basidiomycetes and a collembolan under Sitka spruce: grazing and its potential effects on fungal distribution and litter decomposition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 235–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkinson D, Visser S and Whittaker J B 1979 Effects of collembolan grazing on fungal colonization of leaf litter. Soil Biol. Biochem. 11, 529–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett5T A 1980 Non-equilibrium coexistence of plants. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 107, 238–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pugh G J F and Boddy L 1988 A view of disturbance and life strategies in fungi. Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh 94B, 3–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rayner A D M and Boddy L 1988 Fungal decomposition of wood. Its biology and ecology. Wiley and Sons, New York. 587 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rayner A D M, Boddy L and Dowson C G 1987 Temporary parasitism ofCoriolus spp. byLenzites betulina: a strategy for domain capture in wood decay fungi. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 45, 53–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read D J 1991 Mycorrhizas in ecosystems. Experientia 47, 376–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read D J 1992 The mycorrhizal mycelium.In Mycorrhizal Functioning an Integrative Plant-Fungal Process. Ed. M F Allen. pp 102–133. Chapman and Hall, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson M J 1970 Studies onRussula emetica and other agarics in a scots pine plantation Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 55, 217–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagara N 1992 Experimental disturbances and epigeous fungi.In The fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem. (2nd ed.). Eds. G C Carrol and D T Wicklow. pp 427–454. Marcel Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sale P F 1977 Maintenance of high diversity in coral reef fish communities. Am. Nat. 111, 337–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw P J A 1988 A consistent hierarchy in the fungal feeding preferences of the CollembolaOnychiurus armatus. Pedobiologia 31, 179–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon L, Bousquet J, Levesque R C and LaLonde M 1993 Origin and diversification of endomycorrhizal fungi and coincidence with vascular land plants. Nature 363, 67–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer R 1986 The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy, 4th. ed, Koeltz Sc. Books, Koenigstein. 981 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slankis V 1973 Hormonal relationships in mycorrhizal development.In Ectomycorrhizae Their Ecology and Physiology. Eds. G C Marks and T T Kozlowski. pp 232–298. Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smucker A J M 1990 Quantification of root dynamics in agroecological systems. Remote Sensing Rev. 5, 237–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szaniszlo P J, Powell P E, Reid C P P and Cline G R 1981 Production of hydroxamate siderophore iron chelators by ectomycorrhizal fungi. Mycologia 73, 1158–1174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Termorshuizen A J 1991 Succession of mycorrhizal fungi in stands ofPinus sylvestris in the Netherlands. J. Veg. Sci. 2, 555–564.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorn R G and Barron G L 1984 Carnivourous mushrooms. Science 224, 76–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trappe J M 1977 Selection of fungi for ectomycorrhizal inoculation in nurseries. Ann. Rev. Phytopath. 15, 203–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trojanowski J, Haider K and Hüttermann A 1984 Decomposition of14C-labelled lignin, holocellulose, and lignocellose by mycorrhizal fungi. Arch. Microbiol. 139, 202–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Väre H 1989 Influence of decaying birch logs to Scots Pine mycorrhizae at clear-cutted ploughed sites in Northern Finland. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 28, 539–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogt K A, Bloomfield J, Ammirati J F and Ammirati S R 1992 Sporocarp production by basidiomycetes with emphasis on forest ecosystems.In The Fungal Community its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem. (2nd ed.). Eds. G C Carrol and D T Wicklow. pp 563–581. Marcel Dekker, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zak B and Marx D H 1964 Isolation of mycorrhizal fungi from roots of individual slash pines. For. Sci. 10, 214.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bruns, T.D. Thoughts on the processes that maintain local species diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Plant Soil 170, 63–73 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02183055

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02183055

Key words

Navigation