Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

The changing epidemiology of infection in burn patients

  • World Progress In Surgery
  • Published:
World Journal of Surgery Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Topical chemotherapy, prompt excision, and timely closure of the burn wound have significantly reduced the occurrence of invasive burn wound infection and its related mortality. Since wound protection is imperfect and invasive wound infection may still occur in patients with massive burns in whom wound closure is delayed, scheduled wound surveillance and biopsy monitoring are necessary to assess the microbial status of the burn wound and identify wound infections caused by resistant bacteria or non-bacterial opportunists at a stage when therapeutic intervention can control the process.

As a reflection of the systemic immunosuppressive effects of burn injury, infection remains the most common cause of morbidity and mortality even though the occurrence of wound infections has been significantly decreased. Pneumonia is the most frequent infection occurring in burn patients today but the improvements in patient management, wound care, and infection control have made bronchopneumonia the most common form of this infection and gram-positive organisms the most common causative agents. The organisms causing bacteremia that exert a species specific effect on the mortality related to extent of burn injury and patient age have changed in concert with changes in wound flora.

Infection control procedures, including scheduled surveillance cultures, utilization of cohort patient care methodology, strict enforcement of patient and staff hygiene, and patient monitoring have been effective in eliminating endemic resistant microbial strains, preventing the establishment of newly introduced resistant organisms, diagnosing infection in a timely fashion, instituting antibiotic and other necessary therapy in a prompt manner, and documenting the effectiveness of present day burn patient care and the improved survival of burn patients.

Résumé

Des antibiotiques locaux, une excision rapide et une couverture cutanée ont contribué à réduire de façon significative la fréquence des infections des plaies et la mortalité qui en découle. La protection des plaies est cependant encore imparfaite et l'invasion massive des plaies est un risque réel chez les brûlés dont la fermeture cutanée est retardée. Une surveillance des plaies avec prélèvements systématiques à intervalles répétés est nécessaire pour évaluer la flore microbienne de la brûlure et identifier les infections provoquées par des souches bactériennes résistantes ou des germes opportunistes non bactériens à un stade oú l'intervention thérapeutique peut étre utile. Du fait de la dépression des fonctions immunologiques chez le brûlé, l'infection reste la cause la plus fréquente de morbidité et de mortalité même si la fréquence de survenue même des infections a diminué. Les infections pulmonaires sont la complication la plus fréquente chez le brûlé aujourd'hui malgré les améliorations dans le traitement global des plaies et surtout dans celui de l'infection. Les germes gram positif sont le plus souvent en cause. Le type de germes provoquant une bactériémie, responsable d'une mortalité variable suivant l'âge et l'étendue des lésions, a changé en même temps que la flore des plaies s'est modifiée. Les procédés de maîtrise de l'infection, comme mises en culture systématique des prélèvements, l'utilisation d'une méthodologie de cohortes, l'exigence d'une hygiène stricte pour les patients et le personnel ainsi que la surveillance des patients ont permis de gros progrès. L'élimination des souches microbiennes endémiques résistantes, la limitation de l'introduction de nouveaux germes résistants, la précocité du diagnostic d'infection, l'institution d'un traitement antibiotique approprié et l'évaluation de l'efficacité des soins quotidiens ont ainsi amélioré la survie des brûlés.

Resumen

La terapia tópica, la resección temprana y el oportuno cierre de la quemadura han reducido en forma significativa la infección invasiva de la herida y su concomitante mortalidad. Puesto que la protección de la herida es imperfecta y la infección invasiva puede occurrir en los pacientes con quemaduras masivas en quienes el cierre de la herida se ha retardado, se hace necesario realizar vigilancia programada de la herida y monitoría mediante biopsia para determinar el estado microbiológico de la quemadura e identificar infecciones por bacterias resistentes o por organismos oportunísticos no bacterianos en una etapa en que la intervención terapéutica pueda controlar el proceso.

Como un reflejo de los efectos immunosupresores sistémicos de la lesión térmica, la infección se mantiene como la causa más común de morbilidad y mortalidad, a pesar de que la incidencia de infección de la quemadura ha disminuido en forma significativa. Actualmente la neumonía es la infección más frecuente en el paciente quemado, pero los avances en el tratamiento total del paciente, en el manejo de la herida y en el control de la sepsis han hecho de la bronconeumonía la forma más común de este tipo de infección y de los microogranismos gram positivos los agentes causales más comunes. Los gérmenes causantes de bacteremia que ejercen un efecto específico sobre la mortalidad relacionada con la extensión de la quemadura y la edad del paciente han variado en concierto con los cambios en la flora de la herida.

Los procedimeientos de control de la infección, incluso la vigilancia programada mediante cultivos, la utilización de metodologías basadas en cohortes de pacientes, la estricta implementación de medidas de higiene del paciente y del personal y la monitoría del paciente han resultado eficaces en eliminar las cepas endémicas resistentes, en prevenir el establecimiento de gérmenes resistentes recientemente introducidos, en diagnosticar la infección en forma oportuna, en instituir antibioticoterapia y otras formas de terapia precozmente y en documentar la eficacia del manejo actual del paciente quemado y mejorar su supervivencia.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Pruitt, B.A., Jr.: Advances in fluid therapy and the early care of the burn patient. World J. Surg.2:139, 1978

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Goodwin, C.W. Jr.: Stress ulcer disease in the burn patient. World J. Surg.5:209, 1981

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Pruitt, B.A., Jr.: The diagnosis and treatment of infection in the burn patient. Burns11:79, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  4. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., O'Neill, J.A. Jr., Moncrief, J.A., Lindberg, R.B.: Successful control of burn wound sepsis. J.A.M.A.203:105, 1968

    Google Scholar 

  5. Order, S.E., Mason A.D. Jr., Switzer, W.E., Moncrief, J.A.: Arterial vascular occlusion and devitalization of burn wounds. Ann. Surg.161:502, 1965

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Infections of burns and other wounds caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In Pseudomonas Aeruginosa: The Organism, Diseases It Causes, and Their Treatment, L.D. Sabath, editor, Vienna, Hans Huber, 1980, pp 55–70

    Google Scholar 

  7. Pruitt, B.A., Jr., Lindberg, R.B.: Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in burn patients. In Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, R.G. Doggett editor, New York, Academic Press, 1979, pp 339–366

    Google Scholar 

  8. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: “Can ... the leopard change his spots?” Br. J. Surg.77:1081, 1990

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Burn patient: II. Later care and complications of thermal injury. Curr. Probl. Surg.16:6, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  10. McManus, A.T., Moody, E.E., Mason, A.D.: Bacterial motility: A component in experimental Pseudomonas aeruginosa burn wound sepsis. Burns6:235, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  11. Bruck, H.S., Nash, G., Stein, J.M., Lindberg, R.B.: Studies on the occurrence and significance of yeast and fungi in the burn wound. Ann. Surg.176:108, 1972

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Pruitt, B.A., Jr.: The burn patient: II. Later care and complications of thermal injury. Curr. Probl. Surg.16:16, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  13. Bruck, H.M., Nash, G., Foley, F.D., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Opportunistic fungal infection of the burn wound with Phycomycetes and Aspergillus: A clinical-pathologic review. Arch. Surg.102:476, 1971

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Excision of the burn wound in patients with large burns. Arch. Surg.124:718, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Host-opportunist interactions in surgical infection. Arch. Surg.121:13, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. McManus, A.T., Kim S.H., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Comparison of quantitative microbiology and histopathology in divided burn wound biopsy specimens. Arch. Surg.122:74, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Foley, F.D.: The use of biopsies in burn patient care. Surgery73:887, 1973

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Kim, S.H., Hubbard, G.B., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Frozen section technique to evaluate early burn wound biopsy: A comparison with the rapid section technique. J. Trauma25:1134, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Kim, S.H., Hubbard, G.B., Worley, B.L., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: A rapid section technique for burn wound biopsy. J. Burn Care Rehabil.6:433, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Teplitz, C.: Pathogenesis of Pseudomonas vasculitis in septic lesions. Arch. Path.80:297, 1965

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Zaske, D.E., Sawchuk, R.D., Gerding, D.N., Strate, R.G.: Increased dosage requirements of gentamicin in burn patients. J. Trauma16:824, 1976

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. McManus, W.F., Goodwin, C.W. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Subeschar treatment of burn wound infection. Arch. Surg.118:291, 1983

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. McManus, A.T.: Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A controlled burn pathogen? Antibiot. Chemother.42:103, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Becker, W.K., Cioffi, W.G. Jr., McManus, A.T., Kim, S.H., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Fungal burn wound infection: A ten year experience. Arch. Surg.126:44, 1991

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Phycomycotic infections. In Problems in General Surgery, J.W. Alexander, editor, Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co., 1984, pp 664–678

    Google Scholar 

  26. Foley, F.D., Greenawald, K.A., Nash, G., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Herpesvirus infection in burned patients. N. Engl. J. Med.282:652, 1970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Brandt, S.J., Tribble, C.G., Lakeman, A.D., Hayden, F.G.: Herpes simplex burn wound infections: Epidemiology of a case cluster and responses to acyclovir therapy. Surgery98:338, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bale, J.F., Jr., Kealey, G.P., Massanari, R.M., Strauss, R.G.: The epidemiology of cytomegalovirus infection among patient with burns. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol.11:17, 1990

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Gross, P.A., Neu, H.C., Aswapokee, P., Van Antwerpen, C., Aswapokee, N.: Deaths from nosocomial infections: Experience in a university hospital and a community hospital. Am. J. Med.68:219, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  30. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Flemma, R.J., DiVincenti, F.C., Foley, F.D., Mason, A.D. Jr.: Pulmonary complications in burn patients. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg.59:7, 1970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., McManus, A.T.: Opportunistic infections in severely burned patients. Am. J. Med76:146, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  32. Shirani, K.Z., Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Mason, A.D. Jr.: The influence of inhalation injury and pneumonia on burn mortality. Ann. Surg,205:82, 1987

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Cioffi, W.G. Jr., Rue, L.W. III, Graves, T.A., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Prophylactic use of high frequency percussive ventilation in patients with inhalation injury. Ann. Surg. (in press).

  34. Bartlett, J.G., Ryan, K.J., Smith, T.F., Wilson, W.R.: Laboratory diagnosis of lower respiratory tract infections. Cumitech 7A, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, 1987, pp 9–10

    Google Scholar 

  35. Springmeyer, S.C., Hackman, R.C., Holle, R., Greenberg, G.M., Weems, C.E., Myerson, D., Meyers, J.D., Thomas, E.D.: Use of bronchoalveolar lavage to diagnosis acute diffuse pneumonia in the immunocompromised host. J. Infect. Dis.154:604, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Pruitt, B.A., Jr., Stein, J.M., Foley, F.D., Moncrief, J.A., O'Neill, J.A.: Intravenous therapy in burn patients: Suppurative thrombophlebitis and other life-threatening complications. Arch. Surg.100:399, 1970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Welch, G.W., McKeel, D.W. Jr., Silverstein, P., Walker, H.L.: The role of catheter composition in the development of thrombophlebitis. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet138:421, 1974

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. O'Neill, J.A. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Foley, F.D., Moncrief, J.A.: Suppurative thrombophlebitis: A lethal complication of intravenous therapy. J. Trauma8:256, 1968

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Missavage, A.E., McManus, W.F., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Suppurative thrombophlebitis. In Current Therapy in Vascular Surgery, C.B. Ernst, J.C. Stanley, editors, Philadelphia, B. C. Decker, Inc., 1987, pp 450–453

    Google Scholar 

  40. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., McManus, W.F., Kim, S.H., Treat, R.C.: Diagnosis and treatment of cannula related intravenous sepsis in burn patients. Ann. Surg.191:546, 1980

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Sasaki, T.M., Welch, G.W., Herndon, D.N., Kaplan, J.Z., Lindberg, R.B., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Burn wound manipulation-induced bacteremia. J. Trauma19:46, 1979

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Kiehn, T.E., Armstrong, D.: Changes in the spectrum of organisms causing bacteremia and fungemia in immunocompromised patients due to venous access devices. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.9:869, 1990

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Mason, A.D. Jr., McManus, A.T., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Association of burn mortality and bacteremia. Arch. Surg.121:1027, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. McManus, A.T. Mason, A.D. Jr, McManus, W.F. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: What's in a name? Is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus just another S. aureus when treated with vancomycin? Arch. Surg.124:1456, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Meers, P.D., Leong, K.Y.: The impact of methicillin: An aminoglycoside-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on the pattern of hospital-acquired infection in an acute hospital. J. Hosp. Infect.16:231, 1990

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. McManus, A.T., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D. Jr., Aitcheson, A.R., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Microbial colonization in a new intensive care burn unit. Arch. Surg.120:217, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Shirani, K.Z., McManus, A.T., Vaughan, G.M., McManus, W.F., Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Mason, A.D. Jr.: Effects of environment on infection in burn patients. Arch. Surg.121:31, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pruitt, B.A., McManus, A.T. The changing epidemiology of infection in burn patients. World J. Surg. 16, 57–67 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02067116

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02067116

Keywords

Navigation