Abstract
Lead has been found to depress the immune system in animal studies at levels far below those responsible for overt toxicity. Literature studies in animal systems most clearly showed an effect of lead on response to a specific immunogenic stimulus. Data are sparse concerning the effects of lead on the immune system in the human population at greatest risk for exposure-children up to six years of age. This portion of the Phase I study reports concentrations of IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE, as well as antibody titers to the specific antigenic stimuli provided by the vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, and Rubella. The study population consisted of a group of 193 children, ages 9 months to 6 years, who participate in the WIC (Women, Infants and Children) and Lead Poisoning Prevention Programs in the urban area of Springfield-Greene County Missouri. Blood lead levels ranged from 1 to 50 μg dL−1. Total Ig levels were determined and the data were analysed. No consistent significant differences were observed among the risk categories in the five age groups examined. A single Ig class in each of three age groups showed apparent significant differences among the various risk categories, but these differences were not correlated with blood lead. An analysis of specific antibody titers to diphtheria, tetanus, and Rubella was performed. Regression analyses of current data in Phase I of this study suggest a detrimental effect of lead on the antibody titres to diphtheria and Rubella.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agrawal, R., Shoudhary, S. and Johri, B. 1989. Effect of lead on the retention of parasitic burden and certain hematological changes in the Swiss albino micemus musculus albinus.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India,59, 33–37.
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseegistry). 1988.The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Children in the United States: A Report to Congress. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Benedich, A., Belisle, E. and Strausser, H. 1981. Immune responses of rats chronically fed subclinical doses of lead.Clin. Exp. Immunol.,43, 189–194.
Blakely, B., Sisodia, C. and Mukkur, T. 1980. The effect of methylmercury, tetraethyl lead and sodium arsenite on the humoral immune response in mice.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.,52, 245–254.
Blakely, B. and Archer, D. 1981. The effect of lead acetate on the immune response in mice.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.,61, 18–26.
Buckley, R. and Dees, S. 1967. Serum immunoglobulins III. Abnormalities associated with chronic urticaria in children.J. Allergy,40, 294–303.
CDC (Center for Disease Control). 1990.The Health Benefits of Smoking Cessation. A Report of the Surgeon General. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, USA.
CDC (Center for Disease Control). 1991.Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children: A Statement By the Centers for Disease Control-October, 1991. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Cook, J., Huffman, E. and Di Luzio, N. 1975. Influence of lead and cadmium on the susceptibility of rats to bacterial challenge.Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med.,150, 741–747.
Cooke, A. 1989. Genetic control of immunity. In: Roitt, Brostoff and Male (ed.),Immunology, pp. 11.3–11.9. Gower Medical Publishing, New York.
Ewers, U., Stiler-Winker, R. and Idel, H. 1982. Serum immunoglobulin, Complement C3 and salivary IgA levels in lead workers.Environ. Res.,29, 351–357.
Faith, R., Luster, M. and Kimmel, C. 1979. Effect of chronic developmental lead exposure on cell-mediated immune functions.Clin. Exp. Immunol.,35, 413–420.
Feldmann, M. and Male, D. 1989. Cell cooperation in the immune response. In: Roitt, Brostoff and Male (ed.),Immunology, pp. 8.1–8.2. Gower Medical Publishing, New York.
Gainer, J. 1973. Activation of the Rauscher leukemia virus by metals.J. Natl. Cancer Inst. (US),51, 609–613.
Gainer, J. 1974. Lead aggravates viral disease and represses the antiviral activity of interferon inducer.Environ. Health Perspect.,7, 113–119.
Gainer, J. 1977. Effects of heavy metals and of deficiency of zinc on mortality rates in mice infected with encephalomyocarditis virus.Am. J. Vet. Res.,38, 869–872.
Ginns, L., Goldenheim, P., Miller, L., Burton, R., Gillick, L., Colvin, R., Goldstein, G., Kung, P., Hurwitz, C. and Kazemi, H. 1982. T-lymphocyte subsets in smoking and lung cancer: analysis by monoclonal antibodies and flow cytometry.Am. Rev. Respiratory Dis.,126, 265–269.
Hanson, L. and Brandtzaeg, P. 1989. The mucosal defense system. In: Stiehm, E.R. (ed.),Immunologic Disorders in Infants and Children, pp. 135–141. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia.
Hemphill, F., Kaeberle, M. and Buck, W. 1971. Lead suppression of mouse resistance toSalmonella typhimurium.Science (Washington, D.C.),172, 1031–1032.
Hillam, R. and Ozkan, A. 1986. Comparison of local and systemic immunity after intratracheal, intraperitoneal and intravenous immunisation of mice exposed to either aerosolized or ingested lead.Environ. Res.,39, 265–277.
Jaramin, B. 1983. Blast lymphocyte transformation (LTT), rosette (E-RFC) and leukocyte migration inhibition (MIF) tests in persons exposed to the action of lead during work. Report II.Bull. Inst. Marit. Trop. Med. Gdynia,34, 189–197.
Johnson, D., Prevost, R., Tillery, J., Kimball, K. and Hosenfeld, J. 1978.Epidemiologic Study of the Effects of Automobile Traffic on Blood Lead Levels. Health Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development. EPA-600/1-78-055. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Kerkvliet, N. and Baecher-Steppan, L. 1982. Immunotoxicology studies on lead: effects of exposure on tumor growth and cell-mediated tumor immunity after syngeneic or allogeneic stimulation.Immunopharmacology,4, 213–224.
Kimber, I., Stonar, M., Gidlow, D. and Niewola, Z. 1986. Influence of chronic low-level exposure to lead on plasma immunoglobulin concentration and cellular immune function in man.Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health,57, 117–125.
Koller, L. 1973. Immunosuppression produced by lead, cadmium and mercury.Am. J. Vet. Res.,34, 1457–1458.
Koller, L. and Kovacic, S. 1974. Decreased antibody formation in mice exposed to lead.Nature (London),250, 148–150.
Koller, L. and Roan, J. 1980. Effects of lead, cadmium and methylmercury on immunological memory.J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol.,4, 47–52.
Koller, L., Kerkvliet, N. and Exon, J. 1985. Neoplasia induced in male rats fed lead acetate, ethyl urea and sodium nitrite.Toxicol. Pathol.,13, 50–57.
Kusaka, H., Homma, T., Ogasawars, H., Munakata, M., Tanimura, K., Ukita, H., Denzumi, N. and Kawakami, Y. 1989. Five year follow-up ofMicropolyspora faeni antibody in smoking and non-smoking farmers.Am. Rev. Respiratory Dis.,140, 695–699.
Lawrence, D.A. 1981. Heavy metal modulation of lymphocyte activities: I.In vitro effects of heavy metals on primary humoral immune responses.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.,57, 439–451.
Luster, M., Faith, R. and Kimmel, C. 1978. Depression of humoral immunity in rats following chronic developmental lead exposure.J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol.,1, 397–402.
Lutz, P., Gale, N., Hewett, J., Phillips, P., Looney, F. and Bengsch, H. 1992. Effects of lead on the immune system of children.Trace Substances in Environmental Health-XXV, Proceedings of the University of Missouri's 25th Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Environmental Health, 1992, 129–144.
Lutz, P., Jayachandran, C., Gale, N., Hewett, J., Phillips, P., Looney, F. and Bengsch, H. 1993. Immunity in children with exposure to environmental lead: I. Effects on cell numbers and cell-mediated immunity. The Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health Annual Meeting and International Conference on Lead and Other Trace Substances, August 3–7, 1992. Research Triangle Park, NCEnvironmental Geochemistry and Health,16, 167–177.
Needleman, H., Schell, A., Bellinger, D., Leviton, A. and Allred, E. 1990. The long term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood: An 11-year follow-up report.New Engl. J. Med.,322, 83–88.
Reigart, J. and Graber, C. 1976. Evaluation of the humoral immune response of children with low level lead exposure.Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.,16, 112–117.
Rosenberg, H., McDonald, T. and Modrak, J. 1985. Influence of chronic lead ingestion on IgG subclass expression of the immune response to bovine serum albumin.Drug and Chem. Toxicology,8, 57–67.
Sachs, H. 1978. Intercurrent infection in lead poisoning.Am. J. Dis. Child.,132, 315–316.
Shenker, B., Matarazzo, W., Hirsch, R. and Gray, I. 1977. Trace metal modification of immunocompetence: I. Effect of trace metals in the cultures onin vitro transformation of B lymphocytes.Cell. Immunol.,34, 19–24.
Snedecor, G. and Cochran, W. 1980.Statistical Methods. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA.
Stankovic, V. and Jugo, S. 1976. Suppressive effect of lead on antibody response of rats toS. typhimurium.Period. Biol.,78 (suppl. 1), 64–65.
Tiller, T. and Buckley, R. 1978. Transient hypogammaglobulinemia of infancy: Review of the literature, clinical and immunologic features of 11 new cases and long-term follow-up.J. Pediatrics,92, 347–353.
Unanue, E. 1984. Antigen-presenting function of the macrophage.Annual Review of Immunology,2, 395–428.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lutz, P.M., Bauer, S., Gale, N.L. et al. Immunity in children with exposure to environmental lead: II. Effects on humoral immunity. Environ Geochem Health 16, 179–189 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01747914
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01747914