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American volunteers in illegal immigration to Palestine, 1946–1948

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Notes

  1. On Aliyah Bet during World War II (including a brief survey of illegal immigration to Palestine in the 1930s), see Dalia Ofer,Escaping the Holocaust: Illegal Immigration to the Land of Israel, 1939–1944 (New York, 1991).

  2. For a complete list of Aliyah Bet ships, their prior names, ports and dates of embarkation and disembarkation, and numbers of macapilim, see Yehuda Slutzky,Sefer Toldot ha-Haganah, vol. 3, part 3 (Tel Aviv, 1972), 1902–1903.

  3. Ada Sereni,Sefinot le-lo Degel (Tel Aviv, 1975), 126–127; Z. Hadari and Z. Tsahor,Voyage to Freedom: An Episode in the Illegal Immigration to Palestine (London, 1985), 22–23.

  4. These statistics are based mainly upon Joseph M. Hochstein and Murray S. Greenfield,The Jews' Secret Fleet (Jerusalem, 1987), Appendix B, 377–379, and includes the twenty-six crew members of theBen Hecht, organized by the Revisionists. See also Yehuda Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah” (Hebrew),Me'asef le-Heker Tenuat ha-Avodah ha-Zionit ve-ha-Sozialism 17 (1987): 156. Despite Sela's statement that there were about three hundred American volunteers, two hundred and fifty seems to be the most well-founded estimate.

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  5. For a detailed review of publications in English referring to the American volunteers up to 1987, see Hochstein and Greenfield,Secret Fleet, 187–190. See also Ze'ev Venia Hadari,Second Exodus: The Full Story of Jewish Illegal Immigration to Palestine, 1945–1948 (London, 1991), 200–205. In Hebrew see Slutzky,Sefer Toldot ha-Haganah, vol. 3, part 2, 1103–1104; Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah”; Aviva Halamish,Exodus: Ha-Sippur ha-Amiti (Tel Aviv, 1990), dedicating a chapter to the American crew members. Note the subtitle of Hochstein and Greenfield'sSecret Fleet, which exemplifies the book's central motif: “Theuntold story of North American volunteers who smashed the British blockade.” The authors, one of whom was himself a volunteer, argue that “the truth about the role North American volunteers played in Aliyah Bet has been lost in a historical shuffle for four decades”, ibid., xvii.

  6. David Sha'ari,Gerush Kafrisin, 1946–1949 (Jerusalem, 1981), 82. Upon discovering the presence of Americans in Cyprus, the British transferred them to a detention camp in Atlit for interrogation where they were detained for several months before being expelled; see letter from S. Friedman and L. D. Komisar to Zvi Yehieli, Mossad Le-Aliyah, Haifa, 17 August, 1948, Haganah Historical Archive (HHA), 14/133, which speaks of six volunteers detained at Atlit for a period of three to six months.

  7. Regarding theBen Hecht, see Sha'ari,Gerush Kafrisin, 82; Hadari,Second Exodus, 204–205.

  8. This claim is based mainly on two documents: (a) “Report on: (1) Publicity surrounding vessels and lack of conspiracy in our U.S. work and suggestions for their prevention; (2) Recruitment and composition of our U.S. staff, and suggested improvements; (3) Preparation of vessels in the U.S.,” 4 June, 1947, HHA, 14/132 (hereafter “Report on U.S. Situation”). The copy in the HHA is unsigned; an additional copy of this report located in the Joe Buxenbaum Collection, Yad Ben-Zvi Archive, 5/3/1/2, has a handwritten addition to the effect that the report was written by Yitzhak Aronowitz (later Aran, alias “Ike,” who served as captain of theExodus 1947), at the request of S.M. (Shaul Meirov, later Avigur, Mossad head). (b) Ze'ev Schind (alias “Danny,” U.S. Mossad head until summer 1947), at a Mapai Bureau meeting, 21 October, 1947, Labour Party Archive, Beit Berl, 25/47; xeroxed copy in the Hacapalah Project Information Center, provisional file 7.15 (hereafter Schind at Mapai Bureau).

  9. See Schind at Mapai Bureau, and also Bracha Habas,Ha-Sefinah she-Nitzhah, 2d ed. (Tel Aviv, 1954), 224.

  10. Hochstein and Greenfield,Secret Fleet, 39.

  11. Ibid.; a letter from William (Bill) Bernstein (2nd officer aboardExodus 1947, to be killed later by the British) to his brother Moe (Morris) Bernstein, 15 April, 1947, Central Zionist Archive (CZA), F41/119.

  12. “Harat” (Davidka Nameri, U.S. Mossad head) to “Arnon” (Tel Aviv Mossad office), 5 October, 1947, HHA, 14/132.

  13. I. F. Stone,Underground to Palestine (New York, 1946), 149; see also p. 127.

  14. Morris Bernstein, 23 July, 1947, CZA, F41/119.

  15. Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah,” 156–157.

  16. See Stone,Underground to Palestine, 149.

  17. Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah,” 156–157.

  18. See, for example, “Yitzhak's Account,” in Habas,Ha-Sefinah she-Nitzhah, 13.

  19. Letter from Bill Bernstein to his mother, n.d., CZA, F41/119, partially quoted in Ruth Gruber,Destination Palestine (New York, 1948), 45. Similar sentiments are evident in a letter to his brother, in which he expressed his desire “to spend a few months looking around Palestine, and I suppose on my way back I'll drop back into Europe for a quick look around.” 15 May, 1947, CZA, F41/119.

  20. Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah,” 153.

  21. Ibid., 152; report signed “Drori,” 14 April, 1946, HHA, 14/132; “Hofshi” (Davidka Nameri) to “Michael” (Moshe Carmil of the Mossad headquarter, in charge of correspondence), 16 June, 1946, ibid. See “to ‘Netter’ [French Mossad branch] for ‘Danny’ from ‘Artzi’ [Mossad headqurter],” 24 June, 1946, ibid.; “Hofi” (Haifa Mossad branch) to Arnon, 24 July, 1946, ibid.

  22. Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah,” 154.

  23. “Artzi” to “Netter,” 3 November, 1946, HHA, 14/132.

  24. The proposed categorization is based upon the following sources: (1) Hochstein and Greenfield,Secret Fleet; (2) Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah”; (3) an unsigned letter, almost certainly written by “Danny” (Ze'ev Schind, U.S. Mossad head at that time), 2 April, 1947, HHA, 14/331 (hereafter - Schind's Letter from U.S.); (4) “Report on U.S. Situation”; (5) Schind at Mapai Bureau; (6) testimony of Yehuda Arazi (head of the Mossad Italian branch from 1945 to spring of 1947), 5 December ,1955, Hacapalah Project Information Center, general testimony 37, conversation III (hereafter Arazi's testimony).

  25. Arazi's testimony.

  26. Ibid.. The crew was similarly depicted by the American journalist I.F. Stone, who sailed on the ship; see Stone,Underground to Palestine, 127.

  27. “‘Kalir’ [Ada Sereni, head of the Mossad Italian branch] and ‘Leonard’ [Italian Mossad branch] to ‘Yiftah’ [Yigal Allon - then Peikowitz, Palmah commander], and ‘Arnon,’ 20 July, 1947, HHA, 14/533.

  28. Yehuda Braginsky,Am Hoter el Hof (Tel Aviv, 1965), 348.

  29. This critism was included in a report written at the journey's conclusion. See Sha'ari,Gerush Kafrisin, 75, based upon HHA, 14/226. See also Arie (Lova) Eliav,Ha-Sefinah Ulua (Tel Aviv, 1968), 100–103, for an account of theChaim Arlosoroff's journey. The description of the American crew (p. 102) hints at social and work-related problems. It should be stressed that although other opinions were expressed regarding the American volunteers, they were couched in general, non-commital terms, and the prevailing tone is one of criticism, see Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapala,” 155–156.

  30. Sha'ari,Gerush Kafrisin, 65–66, based upon HHA, 14/220. The statement was made by Davidka Nameri.

  31. The first ships with American volunteers serving as crew — theJosiah Wedgwood and theHaganah — were among the last whose passengers were detained at Atlit (about ten miles south of Haifa). As of mid-August 1946, the British deported the macapilim to Cyprus.

  32. Arnon to Yis'ar (Ze'ev Venia Pomerintz, later Hadari, of the French Mossad branch), 29 June, 1947, HHA, 14/530.

  33. Arnon to Leonard, 5 June, 1947, HHA, 14/530; Hofi to Arnon, 29 June, 1947, ibid.; Arnon to Yis'ar, 30 June, 1947, HHA, 14/702.

  34. Arnon to Sydney (Marseilles' Mossad branch), 3 July, 1947, HHA, 14/532.

  35. For the volunteers' reaction, see ibid.; for the precise number of American volunteers who served on theExodus, see Halamish,Exodus, 255 (n. 23).

  36. Arnon to the vessel (Exodus), 14 July, 1947, HHA, 14/234b.

  37. In effect, three Palestinian Jewish staff members escorted the macapilim on their deportation journey, not one; see Halamish,Exodus, 105.

  38. Author's conversation with Dov Mills, American crew member, March 1986; interview of 'Azriel 'Einav by Nissan Degani, 1988, Hacapalah Project Information Center, general testimony 392. See also Halamish,Exodus, 32. On the fate of the other eleven American volunteers on theExodus, also see p. 255, n. 23.

  39. Ibid., 25–32. For descriptions of some ofExodus' American volunteers, see David Holly,Exodus 1947 (Boston and Toronto, 1969), 128–168, and Jacques Derogy,Parashat Exodus b'Or Hadash (Tel Aviv, 1972), 13–29.

  40. Schind's Letter from U.S.

  41. Letter from Bill (Bernstein) to his brother, undated, but apparently written before the ship left North America, CZA, F41/119.

  42. Letter from Bill (Bernstein) to his brother Moe (Morris), 9 March, 1947, ibid. After crossing the ocean and arriving to Europe, Bernstein wrote to his brother again, this time telling him that “the crew has finally molded into a good working bunch of seamen,” 15 April, 1947, ibid..

  43. Hochstein and Greenfield,Secret Fleet, 32.

  44. Ibid; Halamish,Exodus, 30.

  45. “Dov Recounts,” in Habas,Ha-Sefinah she-Nitzhah, 77. The speaker was Dov Mills, a member of the American branch of Ha-Shomer ha-Zair, who accompanied the macapilim on theExodus throughout the entire affair.

  46. Ibid., 224.

  47. “Report on the Interception and Arrest of ‘President Warfield’,” PRO, Adm 1/20685.

  48. Ibid..

  49. Ibid..

  50. “Dov Recounts,” in Habas,Ha-Sefinah she-Nizhah, 77.

  51. Halamish,Exodus, 106.

  52. Ibid., 106, 189, and references there.

  53. Yitzhak Aronowitz (“Ike” Aran), Testimony, 10 October, 1963, HHA, 4271.

  54. “Report on U.S. Situation” (see n. 9 above, item a).

  55. Ibid.

  56. Ibid., emphasis in original.

  57. Ibid.

  58. Ibid., emphasis in original.

  59. See nn. 28–30 above.

  60. See Schind's Letter from U.S.; Schind at Mapai Bureau; and also “Report on U.S. Situation.”

  61. See n. 29 above.

  62. Ibid.

  63. See “Report on U.S. Situation”; Schind at Mapai Bureau. On the American League for a Free Palestine and the Bergson Group, see Monty N. Penkower, “In Dramatic Dissent: The Bergson Boys,”American Jewish History 70 (1981): 281–309; Aaron Berman,Nazism, the Jews and American Zionism, 1933–1948 (Detroit, 1990), 130–131.

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  64. Halamish,Exodus, 28–29.

  65. Sela, “The Role of American Pioneers in the Hacapalah,” 156; Hochstein and Greenfield,Secret Fleet, 39; Slutzky,Sefer Toldot ha-Haganah, vol. 3, part 2, 1103; Jacques Derogy,Parashat Exodus b'Or Hadash, 16.

  66. See Hochstein and Greenfield,Secret Fleet, 39.

  67. “Report on U.S. Situation.”

  68. David (Nameri, U.S. Mossad head) to Michael and friends, 9 October, 1947, HHA, 14/132. For the surplus of young American Jewish volunteers, see also Slutzky,Sefer Toldot ha-Haganah, vol. 3, part 2, 1104.

  69. See Schind's letter regarding thePresident Warfield's crew, n. 25 above, item 3.

  70. Harat (Davidka Nameri, U.S. Mossad Head) to Arnon, 5 October, 1947, HHA, 14/132.

  71. Ibid.; David (Nameri) to Mossad, 6 December, 1947, HHA, 14/133; Harat to Arnon, New York, 7 December, 1947, HHA, 14/132.

  72. “Many receive a relatively high salary, approximately 400 Wises a month” (“Wise” = a code name for dollar, named after the American Zionist leader Stephen Wise.); Harat to Arnon, Yis'ar, Leonard, 17 October, 1947, HHA, 14/132.

  73. Harat to Arnon, 5 October, 1947, ibid.

  74. See nn. 9 and 10 above and Arnon to Sydney, 10 May, 1948, HHA, 14/133.

  75. See, for example, Harat to Arnon, New York, 7 December, 1947, HHA, 14/132.

  76. Files 14/132 and 14/133 in the HHA contain many telegrams relating to shipping the volunteers' personal effects and to lost baggage. Shortly after his arrival to the U.S., Davidka Nameri wrote: “Regarding the clothes scattered to the ends of the earth that are unrecoverable, that again costs us money.” Harat to Arnon, New York, 7 December, 1947, HHA, 14/132.

  77. Harat to Arnon, 5 October, 1947, ibid.

  78. Requests were sent from the U.S. for information about volunteers who were staying in Palestine and Cyprus. Harat to Michael and friends, New York, 14 October, 1947, HHA, 14/132; David to Friends, New York, 24 November, 1947, ibid..

  79. Harat to Arnon, Yis'ar, Leonard, 17 October, 1947, ibid..

  80. See Hadari and Tsahor,Voyage to Freedom; Halamish,Exodus, 178–186, 243–245.

  81. A second, brief part of this episode was the drafting of Americans to the IDF in the Mahal (Volunteers from Abroad) framework during the War of Independence; see opening remark and first footnote in Hannah Torok-Yablonka, “The Recruitment of Holocaust Survivors during the War of Independence,”Studies in Zionism 13/1 (1992): 43.

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  82. Sefer ha-Palmah, published in the early 1950s, left its mark on subsequent histories of the struggle for statehood. Former Palmah members continued to aggrandize their organization's role in Aliyah Bet; this was the case during the official “Hacapalah Year” (1964) and in books published in the 1970s. See Haim Gouri and Haim Hefer (eds.),Mishpahat ha-Palmah, (n.d., n. p.); also Haim Gouri,Ha-Sefer ha-Meshuga (Tel Aviv, 1971).

  83. See Aviva Halamish, “Illegal Immigration: Values, Myth and Reality,”Studies in Zionism 9/1 (1988): 59–62.

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  84. Sha'ari,Gerush Kafrisin; Halamish,Exodus; Nahum Bogner, Iy ha-Gerush: Mahanot ha-Mac (Tel Aviv, 1991). In addition, studies have been devoted to the survivors, their organization in Europe, and active participation in the struggle for statehood. See Hagit Lavsky, “‘She'erit Ha-pleita’ — Object or Subject of History? New Directions in Historical Research” (Hebrew),Yahadut Zemanenu 6 (1990): 25–43.

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  85. As, again, in the subtitle of Hochstein and Greenfield'sSecret Fleet: “The untold story of North American volunteers whosmashed the British blockade.” Both Greenfield and Yehuda Sela (see no. 4 above) were volunteers on Mossad ships.

  86. The chapter dealing with the role of the Americans in Aliyah Bet in Hadari,The Second Exodus, 200–205, is entitled “The American Dimension in American Eyes.” It is prefaced by a comment: “The information and perspectives on the role of Americans in this chapter are contributed by one of them.” Unlike the book's other chapters, this one contains no archival or other documentation.

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    Aviva Halamish

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Halamish, A. American volunteers in illegal immigration to Palestine, 1946–1948. Jew History 9, 91–106 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01669191

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